This paper presents a methodology for determining eigenfunctions and frequencies of the Euler-Bernoulli model for elastic beams that can include damping and devices located at intermediate or end points of the beam. The eigenfunctions or vibration modes of the beam are obtained by using solution basis generated by the dynamic solution of a fourth-order differential equation, through a block matrix formulation of the boundary and compatibility conditions. The use of the dynamic basis has been often used to reduce the calculations in obtaining the modes and frequencies. Forced responses are obtained with the Galerkin method by modifying the classical modal analysis with the inclusion of new conditions of orthogonality between modes that are suitable for problems with viscous damping or non-classical boundary conditions. / Este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia para determinar as autofunções e as frequências de um modelo Euler-Bernoulli para vigas elásticas que podem incluir amortecimento e dispositivos localizados num ponto intermediário ou nos extremos da viga. As autofunções ou modos de vibração da viga são obtidos usando uma base de solução gerada pela solução dinâmica de uma equação diferencial de quarta ordem, através de uma formulação matricial em blocos para as condições de contorno e de compatibilidade. O uso da base dinâmica tem sido frequentemente utilizada para reduzir os cálculos na obtenção dos modos e das frequências. Respostas forçadas são obtidas usando o método de Galerkin, modificando a análise modal clássica com a inclusão de novas condições de ortogonalidade entre os modos que são adequadas para problemas com amortecimento viscoso ou com condições de contorno não-clássicas

L'objectif de ce travail est de mettre au point des méthodes pour détecter, localiser, quantifier et suivre l'évolution de l'endommagement dans les câbles courts, tels que les suspentes des ponts suspendus, à partir de leurs réponses vibratoires. Afin de modéliser ces câbles, un modèle linéaire 1D de poutre d'Euler Bernoulli avec tension est utilisé. Ce modèle permet de modéliser une large gamme de structures, allant de la corde vibrante à la poutre sans tension. Pour le câble, l'endommagement est introduit dans l'équation vibratoire par des modifications locales de la masse linéique et de la rigidité en flexion et par un changement global de la tension. De plus, pour introduire une "fissure" dans l'équation vibratoire d'une poutre, la modification de la rigidité peut être remplacée par un ressort de rotation au niveau de la fissure. Pour ces deux modèles d'introduction d'endommagements, une estimation analytique au premier ordre des variations des paramètres modaux en fonction des modifications est établie. Grâce aux estimations analytiques obtenues pour la variation relative des fréquences en fonctions des modifications physiques, nous développons des techniques de localisation pour deux cas d'étude : deux essais seuls correspondants à deux états (sain et endommagé) et une série d'essais (plusieurs essais de l'état sain à l'état endommagé). Pour ce second cas, une autre méthode de détection et de localisation utilisant cette fois la SVD est proposée. Les méthodes proposées sont testées sur des données numériques et sur des données expérimentales existant dans la littérature ou effectuées pendant la thèse / The objective of this work is to develop methods to detect, localize, quantify and follow the evolution of the damage in short cables, such as suspenders of the suspension bridges, using their vibratory responses. To simulate these cables, a 1D Euler Bernoulli beam linear model with tension is used. This model allows to study a wide range of structures from the vibrating string to the beam without tension. For cables, damage is introduced into the vibratory equation by local changes of the linear density and the bending stiffness and a global change in the tension. To introduce a crack in the vibrating beam equation, the change in the rigidity may be replaced by a pinned joint at the location ofthe crack. For both these models, a first order analytical estimation of the variation of modal parameters due to theses changes is established. Using these analytical estimations of the relative frequency variations in functions of the physical changes, we develop methods of localization for two cases : only two tests corresponding to two states (healthy and damaged) and a series of tests (several tests on the healthy state and several tests on the damaged state). For the second case, we propose another method of detection and localization which uses the SVD tool . These methods are tested on numerical data and experimental data from literature or from tests performed during the phD.

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Le travail présenté dans cette thèse est consacré à la modélisation de la dynamique de locomotion des "soft robots", i.e. les systèmes multi-corps mobiles compliants. Ces compliances peuvent être localisées et considérées comme des liaisons passives du système,ou bien introduites par des flexibilités distribuées le long des corps. La dynamique de ces systèmes est modélisée en adoptant une approche Lagrangienne basée sur les outils mathématiques développés par l’école américaine de mécanique géométrique. Du point de vue algorithmique, le calcul de ces modèles dynamiques s’appuie sur un algorithme récursif et efficace de type Newton-Euler, ici étendu aux robots locomoteurs munis d’organes compliants. Poursuivant des objectifs de commande et de simulation rapide pour la robotique, l’algorithme proposé est capable de résoudre la dynamique externe directe ainsi que la dynamique inverse des couples internes. Afin de mettre en pratique l’ensemble de ces outils de modélisation, nous avons pris le vol battant des insectes comme exemple illustratif. Les équations non-linéaires qui régissent les déformations passives de l’aile sont établies en appliquant deux méthodes différentes. La première consiste à séparer le mouvement de l’aile en une composante rigide dite de "repère flottant" et une composante de déformation. Cette dernière est paramétrée dans le repère flottant par la méthode des modes supposés ici appliquée à l’aile vue comme une poutre d’Euler-Bernoulli soumise à la flexion et à la torsion. Quant à la seconde approche, les mouvements de l’aile n’y sont pas séparés mais directement paramétrés par les transformations finies rigides et absolues d’une poutre Cosserat. Cette approche est dite Galiléenne ou "géométriquement exacte" en raison du fait qu’elle ne requiert aucune approximation en dehors des inévitables discrétisations spatiale et temporelle imposées parla résolution numérique de la dynamique du vol. Dans les deux cas,les forces aérodynamiques sont prises en compte via un modèle analytique simplifié de type Dickinson. Les modèles et algorithmes résultants sont appliqués à la conception d’un simulateur du vol, ainsi qu’à la conception d’un prototype d’aile, dans le contexte du projet coopératif (ANR) EVA. / The objective of the present work is to model the locomotion dynamics of "soft robots", i.e. compliant mobile multi-body systems. These compliances can be either localized and treated as passive joints of the system, or introduced by distributed flexibilities along the bodies. The dynamics of these systems is modeled in a Lagrangian approach based on the mathematical tools developed by the American school of geometric mechanics. From the algorithmic viewpoint, the computation of these dynamic models is based on a recursive and efficient Newton-Euler algorithm which is extended here to the case of robots equipped with compliant organs. The proposed algorithm is compatible with control, fast simulation and real time robotic applications. It is able to solve the direct external dynamics as well as the inverse internal torque dynamics. The modeling tools and algorithms developed in this thesis are applied to one of the most advanced cases of compliante locomotion i.e. the flapping flight MAVs bio-inspired by insects. The nonlinear equations governing the passive deformations of the wing are derived using two different methods. In the first method, we separate the wing movement into a rigid component (which corresponds to the movements of a "floating frame"), and a deformation component. The latter one is parameterized in the floating frame using the assumed modes approach where the wing is considered as an Euler-Bernoulli beam undergoing flexion and torsion deformations. Regarding the second method, the wing movements are no longer separated but directly parameterize dusing rigid finite absolute transformations of a Cosserat beam. This method is called Galilean or "geometrically exact" because it does not require any approximation apart from the unavoidable spatial and temporal discretizations imposed by numerical resolution of the flight dynamics. In both cases, the aerodynamic forces are taken into account through a simplified analytical model. The resulting models and algorithms are used in the context of the collaborative project (ANR) EVA to develop a flight simulator, and to design wing prototype.

Dans ce travail, différentes formulations d'éléments de poutres sont proposées pour l'analyse à rupture de structures de type poutres ou portiques en béton armé soumises à des chargements statiques monotones. La rupture localisée des matériaux est modélisée par la méthode à discontinuité forte, qui consiste à enrichir l'interpolation standard des déplacements (ou rotations) avec des fonctions discontinues associées à un paramètre cinématique supplémentaire interprété comme un saut de déplacement (ou rotation). Ces paramètres additionnels sont locaux et condensés au niveau élémentaire. Un élément fini écrit en efforts résultants et deux éléments finis multi-couches sont développés dans ce travail. L'élément de poutre d'Euler Bernouilli écrit en effort résultant présente une discontinuité en rotation. La réponse en flexion du matériau hors discontinuité est décrite par un modèle élastoplastique en effort résultant et la relation cohésive liant moment et saut de rotation sur la rotule plastique est, quant à elle, décrite par un modèle rigide plastique. La réponse axiale est suppposée élastique. Pour ce qui concerne l'approche multi-couche, chaque couche est considérée comme une barre constituée de béton ou d'acier. La partie régulière de la déformation de chaque couche est calculée en s'appuyant sur la cinématique associée à la théorie d'Euler Bernoulli ou de Timoshenko. Une déformation axiale additionnelle est considérée par l'introduction d'une discontinuité du déplacement axial, introduite indépendamment dans chaque couche. Le comportement du béton est pris en compte par un modèle élasto-endommageable alors que celui de l'acier est décrit par un modèle élastoplastique. La relation cohésive entre la traction sur la discontinuité et le saut de déplacement axial est décrit par un modèle rigide endommageable adoucissant pour les barres (couches) en béton et rigide plastique adoucissant pour les barres en acier. La réponse en cisaillement pour l'élement de Timoshenko est supposée élastique. Enfin, l'élément multi-couche de Timoshenko est enrichi en introduisant une partie visqueuse dans la réponse adoucissante. L'implantation numérique des différents éléments développés dans ce travail est présentée en détail. La résolution par une procédure d'«operator split» est décrite pour chaque type d'élément. Les différentes quantités nécessaires pour le calcul au niveau local des variables internes des modèles non linéaires ainsi que pour la construction du système global fournissant les valeurs des dégrés de liberté sont précisées. Les performances des éléments développés sont illustrées à travers des exemples numériques montrant que la formulation basée sur un élément multicouche d'Euler Bernouilli n'est pas robuste alors les simulations s'appuyant sur des éléments d'Euler Bernouilli en efforts résultants ou sur des éléments multicouche de Timoshenko fournissent des résultats très satisfaisants. / In this work, several beam finite element formulations are proposed for failure analysis of planar reinforced concrete beams and frames under monotonic static loading. The localized failure of material is modeled by the embedded strong discontinuity concept, which enhances standard interpolation of displacement (or rotation) with a discontinuous function, associated with an additional kinematic parameter representing jump in displacement (or rotation). The new parameters are local and are condensed on the element level. One stress resultant and two multi-layer beam finite elements are derived. The stress resultant Euler-Bernoulli beam element has embedded discontinuity in rotation. Bending response of the bulk of the element is described by elasto-plastic stress resultant material model. The cohesive relation between the moment and the rotational jump at the softening hinge is described by rigid-plastic model. Axial response is elastic. In the multi-layer beam finite elements, each layer is treated as a bar, made of either concrete or steel. Regular axial strain in a layer is computed according to Euler-Bernoulli or Timoshenko beam theory. Additional axial strain is produced by embedded discontinuity in axial displacement, introduced individually in each layer. Behavior of concrete bars is described by elastodamage model, while elasto-plasticity model is used for steel bars. The cohesive relation between the stress at the discontinuity and the axial displacement jump is described by rigid-damage softening model in concrete bars and by rigid-plastic softening model in steel bars. Shear response in the Timoshenko element is elastic. Finally, the multi-layer Timoshenko beam finite element is upgraded by including viscosity in the softening model. Computer code implementation is presented in detail for the derived elements. An operator split computational procedure is presented for each formulation. The expressions, required for the local computation of inelastic internal variables and for the global computation of the degrees of freedom, are provided. Performance of the derived elements is illustrated on a set of numerical examples, which show that the multi-layer Euler-Bernoulli beam finite element is not reliable, while the stress-resultant Euler-Bernoulli beam and the multi-layer Timoshenko beam finite elements deliver satisfying results. / V disertaciji predlagamo nekaj formulacij končnih elementov za porušno analizo armiranobetonskih nosilcev in okvirjev pod monotono statično obteˇzbo. Lokalizirano porušitev materiala modeliramo z metodo vgrajene nezveznosti, pri kateri standardno interpolacijo pomikov (ali zasukov) nadgradimo z nezvezno interpolacijsko funkcijo in z dodatnim kinematičnim parametrom, ki predstavlja velikost nezveznosti v pomikih (ali zasukih). Dodatni parametri so lokalnega značaja in jih kondenziramo na nivoju elementa. Izpeljemo en rezultantni in dva večslojna končna elementa za nosilec. Rezultantni element za Euler-Bernoullijev nosilec ima vgrajeno nezveznost v zasukih. Njegov upogibni odziv opišemo z elasto-plastičnim rezultantnim materialnim modelom. Kohezivni zakon, ki povezuje moment v plastičnem členku s skokom v zasuku, opišemo s togo-plastičnim modelom mehčanja. Osni odziv je elastičen. V večslojnih končnih elementih vsak sloj obravnavamo kot betonsko ali jekleno palico. Standardno osno deformacijo v palici izračunamo v skladu z Euler-Bernoullijevo ali s Timošenkovo teorijo nosilcev. Vgrajena nezveznost v osnem pomiku povzroči dodatno osno deformacijo v posamezni palici. Obnašanje betonskega sloja opišemo z modelom elasto-poškodovanosti, za sloj armature pa uporabimo elasto-plastični model. Kohezivni zakon, ki povezuje napetost v nezveznosti s skokom v osnem pomiku, opišemo z modelom mehčanja v poškodovanosti za beton in s plastičnim modelom mehčanja za jeklo.Striˇzni odziv Timošenkovega nosilca je elastičen. Večslojni končni element za Timošenkov nosilec nadgradimo z viskoznim modelom mehčanja. Za vsak končni element predstavimo računski algoritem ter vse potrebne izraze za lokalni izračun neelastičnih notranjih spremenljivk in za globalni izračun prostostnih stopenj. Delovanje končnih elementov preizkusimo na več numeričnih primerih. Ugotovimo, da večslojni končni element za Euler-Bernoullijev nosilec ni zanesljiv, medtem ko rezultantni končni element za Euler-Bernoullijev nosilec in večslojni končni element za Timošenkov nosilec dajeta zadovoljive rezultate.

Advances in the design and manufacturing technologies have greatly enhanced the utility of fiber reinforced composite materials in aircraft, helicopter and space- craft structural components. The special characteristics of composites such as high strength and stiffness, light-weight corrosion resistance make them suitable sub- stitute for metals/metallic alloys. However, composites are very sensitive to the anomalies induced during their fabrication and service life. Also, they are suscepti- ble to the impact and high frequency loading conditions because the epoxy matrix is at-least an order of magnitude weaker than the embedded reinforced carbon fibers. On the other hand, the carbon based matrix posses high electrical conductivity which is often undesirable. Subsequently, the metal matrix produces high brittleness. Var- ious forms of damage in composite laminates can be identified as indentation, fiber breakage, matrix cracking, fiber-matrix debonding and interply disbonding (delam- ination). Among all the damage modes mentioned above, delamination has been found to be serious for all cases of loading. They are caused by excessive interlaminar shear and normal stresses. The interlaminar stresses that arise in the case of composite materials due to the mismatch in the elastic constants across the plies. Delamination in composites reduce it’s tensile and compressive strengths by consid- erable margins. Hence the knowledge of these stresses is the most important aspect to be looked into. Basic theories like the Euler-Bernoulli’s theory and Timoshenko beam theory are based on many assumptions which poses limitation to determine these stresses accurately. Hence the determination of these interlaminar stresses accurately requires higher order theories to be considered. Most of the conventional methods of determination of the stresses are through the solutions, involving the trigonometric series, which are available only to small and simple problems. The most common method of solution is by Finite Element (FE) Method. There are only few elements existing in the literature and very few in the commercially available finite element software to determine the interlaminar stresses accurately in the composite laminates. Accuracy of finite element solution depends on the choice of functions to be used as interpolating polynomials for the field variable. In-appropriate choice will manifest in the form of delayed convergence. This delayed convergence and accuracy in predicting these stresses necessiates a formulation of elements with a completely new concept. The delayed convergence is sometimes attributed to the shear locking phenomena, which exist in most finite element formulation based on shear deformation theories. The present work aims in developing finite elements based on higher order theories, that alleviates the slow convergence and achieves the solutions at a faster rate without compromising on the accuracy. The accuracy primarily depends on the theory used to model the problem. Thus the basic theories (such as Elementary Beam theory and Timoshenko Beam theory) does not suffice the condition to accuratley determine the interlaminar stresses through the thickness, which is the primary cause for delamination in composites. Two different elements developed on the principle of super-convergence has been presented in this work. These elements are subjected to several numerical experiments and their performance is assessed by comparing the solutions with those available in literature. Spacecraft and aircraft structures are light in weight and are also lightly damped because of low internal damping of the material of construction. This increased exibility may allow large amplitude vibration, which might cause structural instability. In addition, they are susceptible to impact loads of very short duration, which excites many structural modes. Hence, structural dynamics and wave propagation study becomes a necessity. The wave based techniques have found appreciation in many real world problems such as in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). Wave propagation problems are characterized by high frequency loads, that sets up stress waves to propagate through the medium. At high frequency, the wave lengths are small and from the finite element point of view, the element sizes should be of the same order as the wave lengths to prevent free edges of the element to act as a free boundary and start reflecting the stress waves. Also longer element size makes the mass distribution approximate. Hence for wave propagation problems, very large finite element mesh is an absolute necessity. However, the finite element problems size can be drastically reduced if we characterize the stiffness of the structure accurately. This can accelerate the convergence of the dynamic solution significantly. This can be acheived by the super-convergent formulation. Numerical results are presented to illustrate the efficiency of the new approach in both the cases of dynamic studies viz., the free vibration study and the wave propagation study. The thesis is organised into five chapters. A brief organization of the thesis is presented below, Chapter-1 gives the introduction on composite material and its constitutive law. The details of shear locking phenomena and the interlaminar stress distribution across the thickness is brought out and the present methods to avoid shear locking has been presented. Chapter-2 presents the different displacement based higher order shear deformation theories existing in the literature their advantages and limitations. Chapter-3 presents the formulation of a super-convergent finite element formulation, where the effect of lateral contraction is neglected. For this element static and free vibration studies are performed and the results are validated with the solution available in the open literature. Chapter-4 presents yet another super-convergent finite element formulation, wherein the higher order effects due to lateral contraction is included in the model. In addition to static and free vibration studies, wave propagation problems are solved to demonstrate its effectiveness. In all numerical examples, the super-convergent property is emphasized. Chapter-5 gives a brief summary of the total research work performed and presents further scope of research based on the current research.