The traditional design methodologies for tunnel and underground excavations are divided in to three categories: Empirical, Analytical, and Observational approaches, whereas in the last years the Numerical approach has strongly become popular both for the intrinsic simplicity of the software packages and their ability to manage problems unsolvable with the classic methods. In this thesis, the underground openings have been analyzed using constitutive models other than the Mohr-Coulomb theory. FLAC is used for the analysis and the software has been implemented to include the Polyaxial Strength Criterion. The details of the modifications made in the software are presented and the results are compared with the Singh's elasto-plastic stress distribution in squeezing grounds. The applicability of the Polyaxial Strength Criterion has been therefore extended to all the numerical suites designed for geo-mechanical purposes (FEM, FDM, …) and the obtained results compared to the observations of deformation and radial squeezing pressure of the instrumented tunnels in the Chibro-Khodri underground power station. This study will develop better comprehension of the behavior of the underground openings and also provide a useful tool to the designers in the planning stages. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

In tunnel excavation, the use of rockbolts has long been a popular means of reinforcement in rock masses to prevent the rock opening from caving in. The idea has evolved from the earliest form of rockbolt made of wood to the more up-to-date form of pre-tensioned or grouted steel rockbolts. A major breakthrough in the design of rockbolt models was made by Aydan (1989). This rockbolt element was modelled in coupled form, with one sub-element representing the steel bolt, and the other sub-element the grout. This representation was necessary to model the complex action in the continuous rock mass near the joint. In elasticity problems, the large displacement formulation of a beam element is derived from the fundamental theory, and the bending phenomenon of a thin rod is analysed by the finite element discretizations of the bar elements and the beam elements. Experiments show that the deformation characteristics of the latter representation resemble a more realistic life behaviour. Based on this finding, this thesis proposes a modification to Aydan's two-dimensional rockbolt element, with the beam elements discretising the steel bolt. The different mechanical responses of a perfectly elastic rockbolt are considered, and the large displacement formulation of the new rockbolt element is derived by combining those of Aydan's rockbolt element and the beam element. The mechanics of the Aydan element and the new rockbolt element are described, and their performances are compared in an identical situation. It is found that in the two two-dimensional examples used in this thesis, the modified element ensures the continuity of curvature of the rockbolt, and in general, can act as support across a discontinuity or joint between rock masses well. In conjunction with the displacement method in the finite element procedures, a conventional iteration solution procedure is first described to solve the nonlinear incremental stiffness equation. However, it is found that this procedure is cumbersome, and requires a large amount of comptutations. Some limited storage quasi-Newton minimization algorithms are considered as an alternative.

There are none known Bronze Age settlement on Gotland, although there are severalexcavation reports that mention that they have found a probable Bronze Age settlement. In the excavation that have been done in the study areas, there are Bronze Age dated hearths, cooking pits and post holes. These study areas have been investigated if they might be possible Bronze Age settlements. This paper discusses about the criteria of settlements and also investigate if the study areas meet those criterias. There are many different criteria for settlement but only the criteria of FMIS are used in the study. There are also different criteria for hearths and cooking pits, what separates them from each other. There have been measures on the distance between different landscape variables in the study areas to see if there are any differences or similarities between the different study areas.

octor of Philosophy(PhD) / Molecular Evolution is the key to explain the divergence of species and the origin of life on earth. The main task in the study of molecular evolution is the reconstruction of evolutionary trees from sequences data of the current species. This thesis introduces a novel algorithm for inferring evolutionary trees from genetic data using quartet-based approach. The new method recursively merges sub-trees based on a global statistical provided by the global quartet weight matrix. The quarte weights can be computed using several methods. Since the quartet weights computation is the most expensive procedure in this approach, the new method enables the parallel inference of large evolutionary trees. Several techniques developed to deal with quartets inaccuracies. In addition, the new method we developed is flexible in such a way that can combine morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses to yield more accurate trees. Also, we introduce the concept of critical point where more than one possible merges are possible for the same sub-tree. The critical point concept can provide information about the relationships between species in more details and show how close they are. This enables us to detect other reasonable trees. We evaluated the algorithm on both synthetic and real data sets. Experimental results showed that the new method achieved significantly better accuracy in comparison with existing methods.

Ο Πείρος είναι ο μεγαλύτερος ποταμός της δυτικής Αχαίας. Πηγάζει από τα ανατολικά του όρους Ερύμανθος υψομέτρου 2.224 μ. και εκβάλλει στον Πατραϊκό κόλπο. Η λεκάνη απορροής του είναι η μεγαλύτερη στη δυτική Αχαΐα. Στη διαδρομή του ο Πείρος δέχεται πλήθος χειμάρρων όπως ο Παραπείρος, το Πουρνολάγκαδο, το Τρανολάγκαδο και το Μεσολάγκαδο. Ο Παραπείρος αποτελεί τον κυριότερο κλάδο του Πείρου. Πηγάζει από τις κορυφές προφήτης Ηλίας, Πυργάκιον, ψηλή Τούρλα και Γρανίτης του Ερύμανθου. Σήμερα, στον δήμο Τριταίας και στα χωριά Χαυκάλι και Τόσκες κατασκευάζεται το φράγμα Πείρου-Παραπείρου, με σκοπό την ύδρευση της Πάτρας και της βιομηχανικής περιοχής Πατρών. Το χωριό Τόσκες θα καλυφθεί από τα νερά της τεχνητής λίμνης. / -

The aim of this master thesis is to evaluate the results of selective post-excavation grouting with polyurethane resin in the subway of Stockholm.Dripping and leakage of water into hard rock tunnels is a costly and commonly occurring problem. Water leakage does not only lead to damage to tunnel installation but may also affect the area above the tunnel due to lowering of the ground water table. To solve this problem there are several methods to prevent water entering the tunnel or to divert it. One of the preventing methods are to grout using polyurethane based resins.This thesis evaluates a drip sealing project where eight point leakages where grouted during November 2015. Drip mapping was carried out before and after the grouting to evaluate the change in leakage amount to determine whether the grouting methodology is suitable for future projects. The drip mapping was carried out during a year before the sealing attempt to investigate the leakages natural variation and with greater certainty being able to evaluate the leakage change after the grouting had been carried out.The evaluation of the grouting showed that none of the point leakages were sealed to 100 %. Only three of the leakages decreased, four increased and one showed no change. The natural variations during the evaluation period, during and after the grouting attempt indicates a natural rise in leakage amount induced by an increase in precipitation and rising seasonal trend.The change in leakage amount for every leakage point was compared to geological and hydrogeological parameters to be able to explain the cause of the results and to determine which conditions the methodology depends on. The correlation with original leakage amount, grouting volume and hydraulic aperture where the strongest and could best be explained by second degree polynomials. By using the equations for the polynomials an interval could be determined where the grouting methodology theoretically would lead to the greatest decrease in leakage amount. There are some uncertainty in the interpretation whether a natural signal in the grouting results led to a correlation due to an internal coupling between the parameters.

Este ensaio clínico randomizado multicêntrico avaliou a efetividade de um tratamento alternativo em lesões de cárie profundas comparado ao tratamento expectante (TE) após três anos de acompanhamento. O tratamento alternativo consistiu na remoção parcial de tecido cariado (RPTC) seguida de restauração em uma sessão. Métodos: Os critérios de inclusão foram: pacientes com molares permanentes apresentando lesões profundas de cárie (lesão alcançando metade interna de dentina ao exame radiográfico); resposta positiva ao teste térmico; ausência de dor espontânea; sensibilidade negativa à percussão vertical e ausência de lesão periapical detectada no exame radiográfico. Dentes elegíveis para participação no estudo foram randomicamente designados ao grupo teste (RPTC) e receberam remoção incompleta de tecido cariado e restauração em uma sessão (resina ou amálgama). Dentes designados ao grupo controle (TE) receberam capeamento pulpar indireto com cimento de hidróxido de cálcio e restauração temporária com cimento de óxido de zinco e eugenol modificado. Após 60 dias, as cavidades foram reabertas, o tecido cariado remanescente foi removido e os dentes foram restaurados com resina composta ou amálgama. O desfecho avaliado foi a vitalidade pulpar, determinada por sensibilidade ao teste térmico e ausência de alteração periapical ao exame radiográfico. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de sobrevivência (Kaplan Meier), teste Log Rank e análise de regressão de Cox. Resultados: Foram executados 299 tratamentos, sendo 152 RPTC e 147 TE, em pacientes com idade variando entre seis a 53 anos. Até o terceiro ano de seguimento, 209 dentes foram avaliados. Foram observadas taxas de sucesso de 94% para o grupo RPTC e de 78% para o TE (p<0,000). As razões de falha foram: pulpite (4) e necrose (1) no grupo RPTC, e pulpite (11), necrose (5) exposição pulpar seguida de tratamento endodôntico (2), osteíte (1), exodontia (1) e fratura do dente (1) no grupo TE. Variáveis associadas com sucesso do tratamento foram o tipo de tratamento (RPTC) e número de superfícies envolvidas na restauração – uma superfície mais favorável do que duas ou mais superfícies. Os resultados sugerem que não há necessidade de reabrir a cavidade e realizar uma segunda escavação de tecido cariado para preservar a vitalidade pulpar. / This randomized multicenter clinical trial evaluated the effectiveness of an alternative treatment on deep caries lesion’s compared to stepwise excavation (SW) after three years follow up. Treatment consisted on partial caries removal (PDR) followed by tooth’s restoration in one session. Methods: Inclusion criteria were: patients with permanent molars presenting deep carious lesions (lesion reaching inner half dentin on the radiographic examination); positive response to cold test; absence of spontaneous pain; negative sensitivity to percussion and absence of periapical lesion detected on radiographic exam. Teeth randomly assigned to PDR (test) received incomplete caries removal and filling in one session (resin or amalgam). Teeth assigned to SW (control) received indirect pulp capping with calcium hydroxide cement, temporary filling with a modified zinc oxide-eugenol cement. After 60 days the cavity was reopened, the remaining decayed dentine was removed and teeth were filled with composite resin or amalgam. Outcome evaluated was pulp vitality, determine by sensitivity to cold test and the absence of periapical alterations on radiographic exam. Data were submitted to Kaplan Meier, log rank test and Cox regression analysis. Results: At baseline, 299 treatments were executed, 152 PDR and 147 SW. At three years follow up, 209 teeth had been evaluated. A success rate of 94% for PDR and 78% for SW was demonstrated (p<0.000). Failure reasons were: pulpitis (4), pulp necrosis (1) for PDR group, and pulpitis (11), necrosis (5), pulp exposure followed by endodontic treatment (2), osteitis (1), tooth extraction (1) and tooth fracture (1) for SW. Variables associated with treatment success were type of treatment (PDR) and number of surfaces involved in the restoration – one surface more favorable than 2 or more surfaces. Results suggest that there is no need to reopen cavity and perform a second excavation to preserve pulp vitality.

Every building needs to be built on solid foundations. Hydromills are machines used to make it possible in excavating very hard ground. This project is about the creation of a test bench for hydraulic motors called here hydromill motors. Excavating is really soliciting for the equipment and leads to many breakages that is why the company asked for the creation of a test bench to measure the lifespan and the reaction of their motors to the forces acting during the cutting. It is complicated to copy the forces and shocks happening in reality because they are very high with quick variations, also depending on the ground. This test bench will have to create high variable loads acting on several directions, a high counter-rotation torque corresponding with the resistance of the ground to the cutting, as well as angular and longitudinal shocks to simulate the hits on the rocks by the teeth.Furthermore the measuring of the internal pressure and hydraulic flow plus the deformations of the main parts of the motors has to be enable by the test bench. The main part of this internship was devoted to the choice of the technical solutions to realize the functions of the test bench as well as the research of companies able to create the test bench elements. Many of them are not conventional due to the high requirements and have to be manufactured individually. In the end an evaluation of the costs and production will give all the information to the company to decide to manufacture it.

Este ensaio clinico randomizado controlado avaliou a eficácia do uso da proteção pulpar indireta com cimento de hidróxido de cálcio (HC) ou sistema adesivo universal (AU) num período de seis meses de acompanhamento em lesões profundas de cáries em dentes permanentes após a remoção seletiva de tecido cariado (RSTC). Métodos: Participaram do estudo 48 pacientes, (mediana de idade de 27 anos [distribuição 7-54 anos]), com 41 molares e 15 premolares com lesões profundas de cárie (envolvimento radiográfico ≥50% de profundidade de dentina), sensibilidade pulpar positiva ao teste frio (gás refrigerado, -50°C, Maquira, PR, Brasil), ausência de dor espontânea, sensibilidade negativa aos testes de percussão, ausência de perda cuspídea e ausência de imagem radiográfica sugestiva de lesão periapical (radiografia periapical - VistaScan®). Após a remoção seletiva de tecido cariado para dentina amolecida, o grupo teste do ensaio recebeu um sistema adesivo universal (Universal single bond, 3M Espe, Brasil), enquanto o grupo controle recebeu a proteção pulpar indireta com cimento de hidróxido de cálcio (Dycal, Dentisply, Rj, Brasil). Todos os dentes foram imediatamente restaurados seguindo o condicionamento ácido seletivo em esmalte, aplicação de um sistema adesivo universal (AU) e resina composta nanoparticulada (Filtek Z350, 3M Espe, SP, Brasil). O desfecho de sucesso para vitalidade pulpar avaliou após seis meses: sensibilidade pulpar positiva ao teste frio, ausência de imagem sugestiva de lesão periapical (radiografia periapical - VistaScan®), ausência de dor espontânea e sensibilidade negativa à percussão vertical. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de sobrevida de Kaplan-Meier e teste Log Rank, e as variáveis idade (mediana), gênero, escolaridade, IPV, ISG, CPO-D, CPO-S, número de faces da restauração, tipo do dente, proteção pulpar indireta, profundidade da lesão (≥50% da profundidade da dentina ou ≥75% da profundidade da dentina) e presença de antagonista, quanto as suas distribuições nos dois grupos de tratamento pelos testes qui-quadrado e de Mann-Whitney. Resultados: As taxas de sucesso foram de 93.3% para o grupo controle (HC) e de 95.8% para o grupo teste (AU) (P=0.976). Dois casos de insucesso foram registrados, sendo necrose pulpar (grupo controle) e pulpite (grupo teste). As variáveis analisadas no início do estudo mostram uma amostra igualmente distribuída entre os grupos de tratamento. Nenhuma das variáveis foi relacionada ao insucesso. Os resultados sugerem que não há diferença entre o uso ou não de HC na proteção pulpar indireta após remoção 7 seletiva de tecido cariado em seis meses de acompanhamento, apresentando uma taxa de sucesso alta independente do tratamento. / This randomized controlled clinical trial evaluated the effectiveness of using indirect pulp protection with calcium hydroxide liner (CH) or universal adhesive (UA) over a period of 6 months in deep caries lesions on permanent teeth after selective removal to soft dentin (SCRSD). Methods: The sample consisted of 41 molars and 15 premolars (with radiographic involvement of the inner half of the dentin), from 48 patients, (median age 27 [distribution 7-54 years]), with positive response to cold test (refrigerated gas, -50 °C, Maquira, PR, Brazil), absence of spontaneous pain, negative sensitivity to percussion tests, absence of cuspid loss and absence of radiographic imaging suggestive of periapical lesion (periapical radiography). After the selective removal to soft dentin, the test group received a universal adhesive system (Universal Single Bond, 3M Espe, Brazil) whereas the control group received indirect pulp protection with calcium hydroxide liner (Dycal, Dentisply, Rj, Brazil). All teeth were restored following selective acid condition for enamel, adhesive system (UA) and nanoparticulate composite resin (Filtek Z350, 3M Espe, SP, Brazil). The successful outcome for pulp vitality assessed after six months: positive pulpal sensitivity to the cold test, absence of image suggestive of periapical lesion (periapical radiography - VistaScan®), absence of spontaneous pain and negative response to vertical percussion test. The results were submitted to the Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and the Log Rank test and the variables: age of subjects, gender, schooling, plaque index, gingival bleeding index, DMF-T, DMF-S, number of surfaces involved in the filling, type of the tooth, indirect pulp material, size of lesion (≥50% of dentine or ≥75% of dentine) and antagonist, analyzed for their distribution in the two treatment groups by the tests chi-square and Mann-Whitney. Results: The success rates were 93.3% for the control group (CH) and 95.8% for the test group (UA) (P=0,976). Only two cases of failure were recorded, one pulp necrosis (control group) and pulpitis (test group). The variables analyzed at the beginning of the study show a similarly distributed sample between treatment groups. The results suggest that there is no difference between the use of CH or UA in indirect pulp protection after SCRSD followed by composite restoration at six months of follow-up, showing a high rate of success for both treatments.

Este ensaio clinico randomizado controlado avaliou a eficácia do uso da proteção pulpar indireta com cimento de hidróxido de cálcio (HC) ou sistema adesivo universal (AU) num período de seis meses de acompanhamento em lesões profundas de cáries em dentes permanentes após a remoção seletiva de tecido cariado (RSTC). Métodos: Participaram do estudo 48 pacientes, (mediana de idade de 27 anos [distribuição 7-54 anos]), com 41 molares e 15 premolares com lesões profundas de cárie (envolvimento radiográfico ≥50% de profundidade de dentina), sensibilidade pulpar positiva ao teste frio (gás refrigerado, -50°C, Maquira, PR, Brasil), ausência de dor espontânea, sensibilidade negativa aos testes de percussão, ausência de perda cuspídea e ausência de imagem radiográfica sugestiva de lesão periapical (radiografia periapical - VistaScan®). Após a remoção seletiva de tecido cariado para dentina amolecida, o grupo teste do ensaio recebeu um sistema adesivo universal (Universal single bond, 3M Espe, Brasil), enquanto o grupo controle recebeu a proteção pulpar indireta com cimento de hidróxido de cálcio (Dycal, Dentisply, Rj, Brasil). Todos os dentes foram imediatamente restaurados seguindo o condicionamento ácido seletivo em esmalte, aplicação de um sistema adesivo universal (AU) e resina composta nanoparticulada (Filtek Z350, 3M Espe, SP, Brasil). O desfecho de sucesso para vitalidade pulpar avaliou após seis meses: sensibilidade pulpar positiva ao teste frio, ausência de imagem sugestiva de lesão periapical (radiografia periapical - VistaScan®), ausência de dor espontânea e sensibilidade negativa à percussão vertical. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de sobrevida de Kaplan-Meier e teste Log Rank, e as variáveis idade (mediana), gênero, escolaridade, IPV, ISG, CPO-D, CPO-S, número de faces da restauração, tipo do dente, proteção pulpar indireta, profundidade da lesão (≥50% da profundidade da dentina ou ≥75% da profundidade da dentina) e presença de antagonista, quanto as suas distribuições nos dois grupos de tratamento pelos testes qui-quadrado e de Mann-Whitney. Resultados: As taxas de sucesso foram de 93.3% para o grupo controle (HC) e de 95.8% para o grupo teste (AU) (P=0.976). Dois casos de insucesso foram registrados, sendo necrose pulpar (grupo controle) e pulpite (grupo teste). As variáveis analisadas no início do estudo mostram uma amostra igualmente distribuída entre os grupos de tratamento. Nenhuma das variáveis foi relacionada ao insucesso. Os resultados sugerem que não há diferença entre o uso ou não de HC na proteção pulpar indireta após remoção 7 seletiva de tecido cariado em seis meses de acompanhamento, apresentando uma taxa de sucesso alta independente do tratamento. / This randomized controlled clinical trial evaluated the effectiveness of using indirect pulp protection with calcium hydroxide liner (CH) or universal adhesive (UA) over a period of 6 months in deep caries lesions on permanent teeth after selective removal to soft dentin (SCRSD). Methods: The sample consisted of 41 molars and 15 premolars (with radiographic involvement of the inner half of the dentin), from 48 patients, (median age 27 [distribution 7-54 years]), with positive response to cold test (refrigerated gas, -50 °C, Maquira, PR, Brazil), absence of spontaneous pain, negative sensitivity to percussion tests, absence of cuspid loss and absence of radiographic imaging suggestive of periapical lesion (periapical radiography). After the selective removal to soft dentin, the test group received a universal adhesive system (Universal Single Bond, 3M Espe, Brazil) whereas the control group received indirect pulp protection with calcium hydroxide liner (Dycal, Dentisply, Rj, Brazil). All teeth were restored following selective acid condition for enamel, adhesive system (UA) and nanoparticulate composite resin (Filtek Z350, 3M Espe, SP, Brazil). The successful outcome for pulp vitality assessed after six months: positive pulpal sensitivity to the cold test, absence of image suggestive of periapical lesion (periapical radiography - VistaScan®), absence of spontaneous pain and negative response to vertical percussion test. The results were submitted to the Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and the Log Rank test and the variables: age of subjects, gender, schooling, plaque index, gingival bleeding index, DMF-T, DMF-S, number of surfaces involved in the filling, type of the tooth, indirect pulp material, size of lesion (≥50% of dentine or ≥75% of dentine) and antagonist, analyzed for their distribution in the two treatment groups by the tests chi-square and Mann-Whitney. Results: The success rates were 93.3% for the control group (CH) and 95.8% for the test group (UA) (P=0,976). Only two cases of failure were recorded, one pulp necrosis (control group) and pulpitis (test group). The variables analyzed at the beginning of the study show a similarly distributed sample between treatment groups. The results suggest that there is no difference between the use of CH or UA in indirect pulp protection after SCRSD followed by composite restoration at six months of follow-up, showing a high rate of success for both treatments.