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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of elaborations on memory . Two types of elaborations (self-generated elaboration and experimenterprovided elaboration) were examined. The experiment consisted of three phases (incidental learning phase, immediate test phase, and delayed test phase). In the incidental learning phase, subjects were asked to make plausibility judgments about 28 fictitious episodes. Half of these were about well-known individuals and the other half were about unknown individuals. Each name (either well-known or unknown) was presented with either two supportive facts or without the supportive facts. During the immediate test phase, subjects were given unexpected memory tests. One week later, unexpected delayed memory tests were administered. Results from both immediate and delayed tests indicated that self-generated elaborations based on prior knowledge subjects had about well-known individuals enhanced the retention of target information, whereas experimenter-provided elaborations involving the presence of supportive facts only benefited memory performance when the subjects had prior knowledge about the individuals. Experimenter-provided elaborations were also effective to the extent that the encoding context was reinstated at testing.

Facial expression has been used as a measure of pain in clinical and experimental studies. The Sociocommunications Model of Pain (T. Hadjistavropoulos, K. Craig, & S. Fuchs-Lacelle, 2004) characterizes facial movements during pain as both expressions of inner experience and communications to other people that must be considered in the social contexts in which they occur. While research demonstrates that specific facial movements may be outward manifestations of pain states, less attention has been paid to the extent to which contextual factors influence facial movements during pain. Experimenters are an inevitable feature of research studies on facial expression during pain and study of their social impact is merited. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of experimenter presence on participants’ facial expressions during pain. Healthy young adults (60 males, 60 females) underwent painful stimulation induced by a cold pressor in three social contexts: alone; alone with knowledge of an experimenter watching through a one-way mirror; and face-to-face with an experimenter. Participants provided verbal self-report ratings of pain. Facial behaviours during pain were coded with the Facial Action Coding System (P. Ekman, W. Friesen, & J. Hager, 2002) and rated by naïve judges. Participants’ facial expressions of pain varied with the context of the pain experience condition but not with verbally self-reported levels of pain. Participants who were alone were more likely to display facial actions typically associated with pain than participants who were being observed by an experimenter who was in another room or sitting across from them. Naïve judges appeared to be influenced by these facial expressions as, on average, they rated the participants who were alone as experiencing more pain than those who were observed. Facial expressions shown by people experiencing pain can communicate the fact that they are feeling pain. However, facial expressions can be influenced by factors in the social context such as the presence of an experimenter. The results suggest that facial expressions during pain made by adults should be viewed at least in part as communications, subject to intrapersonal and interpersonal influences, rather than direct read-outs of experience.

Facial expression has been used as a measure of pain in clinical and experimental studies. The Sociocommunications Model of Pain (T. Hadjistavropoulos, K. Craig, & S. Fuchs-Lacelle, 2004) characterizes facial movements during pain as both expressions of inner experience and communications to other people that must be considered in the social contexts in which they occur. While research demonstrates that specific facial movements may be outward manifestations of pain states, less attention has been paid to the extent to which contextual factors influence facial movements during pain. Experimenters are an inevitable feature of research studies on facial expression during pain and study of their social impact is merited. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of experimenter presence on participants’ facial expressions during pain. Healthy young adults (60 males, 60 females) underwent painful stimulation induced by a cold pressor in three social contexts: alone; alone with knowledge of an experimenter watching through a one-way mirror; and face-to-face with an experimenter. Participants provided verbal self-report ratings of pain. Facial behaviours during pain were coded with the Facial Action Coding System (P. Ekman, W. Friesen, & J. Hager, 2002) and rated by naïve judges. Participants’ facial expressions of pain varied with the context of the pain experience condition but not with verbally self-reported levels of pain. Participants who were alone were more likely to display facial actions typically associated with pain than participants who were being observed by an experimenter who was in another room or sitting across from them. Naïve judges appeared to be influenced by these facial expressions as, on average, they rated the participants who were alone as experiencing more pain than those who were observed. Facial expressions shown by people experiencing pain can communicate the fact that they are feeling pain. However, facial expressions can be influenced by factors in the social context such as the presence of an experimenter. The results suggest that facial expressions during pain made by adults should be viewed at least in part as communications, subject to intrapersonal and interpersonal influences, rather than direct read-outs of experience.

Facial expression has been used as a measure of pain in clinical and experimental studies. The Sociocommunications Model of Pain (T. Hadjistavropoulos, K. Craig, & S. Fuchs-Lacelle, 2004) characterizes facial movements during pain as both expressions of inner experience and communications to other people that must be considered in the social contexts in which they occur. While research demonstrates that specific facial movements may be outward manifestations of pain states, less attention has been paid to the extent to which contextual factors influence facial movements during pain. Experimenters are an inevitable feature of research studies on facial expression during pain and study of their social impact is merited. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of experimenter presence on participants’ facial expressions during pain. Healthy young adults (60 males, 60 females) underwent painful stimulation induced by a cold pressor in three social contexts: alone; alone with knowledge of an experimenter watching through a one-way mirror; and face-to-face with an experimenter. Participants provided verbal self-report ratings of pain. Facial behaviours during pain were coded with the Facial Action Coding System (P. Ekman, W. Friesen, & J. Hager, 2002) and rated by naïve judges. Participants’ facial expressions of pain varied with the context of the pain experience condition but not with verbally self-reported levels of pain. Participants who were alone were more likely to display facial actions typically associated with pain than participants who were being observed by an experimenter who was in another room or sitting across from them. Naïve judges appeared to be influenced by these facial expressions as, on average, they rated the participants who were alone as experiencing more pain than those who were observed. Facial expressions shown by people experiencing pain can communicate the fact that they are feeling pain. However, facial expressions can be influenced by factors in the social context such as the presence of an experimenter. The results suggest that facial expressions during pain made by adults should be viewed at least in part as communications, subject to intrapersonal and interpersonal influences, rather than direct read-outs of experience. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of experimenter status and subject dogmatism on anagram solving. The subjects were 90 college students. Only those subjects scoring in the upper or lower thirds on the Dogmatism Scale were utilized. The same experimenter was described as being of either high or low status in each class. In the low status condition, the experimenter was introduced as a student making up an incomplete, while in the high-status condition, the experimenter was introduced as a Doctoral student doing research for a Federal Grant Agency. Therefore, four experimental groups were formed in relation to two different levels of dogmatism and two different statuses for the experimenter. A two-way analysis of variance with one covariate {Composite ACT scores to account for intellectual functioning) was computed using subject dogmatism and experimenter status as the independent variables and anagram performance as the dependent variable. It was found that neither the main affects of subject dogmatism and experimenter status, nor the interaction between the two variables were significant. Analysis of a questionnaire designed to evaluate the status manipulation indicated that the manipulation had not been effective. The problem of devising an effective status manipulation for a female experimenter was discussed in relation to future research.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of experimenter status and subject dogmatism on anagram solving. The subjects were 90 college students. Only those subjects scoring in the upper or lower thirds on the Dogmatism Scale were utilized. The same experimenter was described as being of either high or low status in each class. In the low status condition, the experimenter was introduced as a student making up an incomplete, while in the high status condition, the experimenter was introduced as a Doctoral student doing research for a Federal Grant Agency. Therefore, four experimental groups were formed in relation to two different levels of dogmatism and two different statuses for the experimenter. A two-way analysis of variance with one covariate {Composite ACT scores to account for intellectual functioning) was computed using subject dogmatism and experimenter status as the independent variables and anagram performance as the dependent variable. It was found that neither the main affects of subject dogmatism and experimenter status, nor the interaction between the two variables were significant. Analysis of a questionnaire designed to evaluate the status manipulation indicated that the manipulation had not been effective. The problem of devising an effective status manipulation for a female experimenter was discussed in relation to future research.

Beginning in the late 1960's (e.g., Bell, 1968), a considerable literature has emerged documenting the impact of children's characteristics on their own care and biopsychosocial outcomes. Yet, surprisingly little research has focused on the impact of the child on the experimental setting. It is well known in the infant literature that infant emotional states contribute to their own attrition, and even cognitive performance (e.g., Fagen et al., 1991). Less well known is the extent that infant characteristics contribute to experimenter social engagement. In the present investigation, we explored whether two experimenters responded to infants differently as a function of infant temperament. Sixty- 334 five infants (37 girls) visited the lab at M = 15.38 months (SD = 1.99). Mothers completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised (IBQ-R) and a demographic assessment. Temperament measures derived from the IBQ-R were reduced to three overarching superdimensions (negative affectivity, effortful control, and surgency) from 14 subdimensions. Infants participated in a Brooks and Meltzoff (2005) type gaze-following procedure. On Trial 1, either of two experimenters sitting directly across from the infant established eye-contact by calling the child's name, said "Look!", then turned their head to look at a target object on the infant's left for 8 seconds. On Trial 2, experimenters followed the same procedure but looked to the infant's right. Trial 3 was the same as Trial 1. On Trials 4-6, experimenters followed a right-left-right pattern, with the exception that an Elmo videotape played on a monitor behind and above the experimenter as soon as the experimenter looked at the target object. Trials 4-6 were designed to test gazefollowing under conditions of distraction. The two experimenters did not differ statistically from one another in looking to the target object on any trial (see Table 1; t's <= 1.60, p's => .12); although, due to procedural requirements looking time for both experimenters differed as a function of distraction condition [F(1, 57) = 98.53, p = .000; see Table 1]. Nevertheless, during a procedural fidelity check, and despite both experimenters being blind to children's temperamental status, we found that experimenter looking time to the target objects in the control condition was correlated with both effortful control and surgency (see Table 2). These correlations were carried primarily by the subdimensions of duration of orientation and perceptual sensitivity, respectively. Evaluating the correlations separately by experimenter showed that both experimenters appeared to be susceptible to infant temperament. These results raise the possibility that even highly trained experimenters, blind to child temperament status, may be responsive to child characteristics when implementing experimental protocols. Obviously, in the present case, when experimenters remained visually engaged with target objects for longer periods of time for certain children, those children had greater opportunity to demonstrate gazefollowing. In principle, children high in effortful control and surgency could demonstrate longer gaze-following not as a direct effect of their temperament, but as an indirect effect of their temperament mediated through an experimenter. Future experimental researchers may wish to include temperament instruments as standard protocol to test for experimenter fidelity.

<p>Människan minns händelser och rörelser som hon själv genomfört bättre än de hon fått berättade för sig. Minnet för händelser och rörelser behandlas i det episodiska minnet. Multimodal memory theory är en teori om det episodiska minnet vilket bland annat behandlar förkunskapernas och modaliteternas betydelse för minneskapaciteten. Då människan genomför något används den motoriska modaliteten och då hon får höra något berättas används den verbala modaliteten. Det som har undersökts är om minnet och förståelsen för komplexa och tekniska lösningar påverkas av vilket modalitet som används vid inkodningen. Undersökningen visade inte någon skillnad på förståelse eller minneskapacitet för komplexa och tekniska lösningar, beroende av vilket modalitet som används vid inkodningen. En anledning till att undersökningen inte visade någon skillnad kan vara att mätredskapet var för trubbigt. Det är även möjligt att resultatet hade blivit ett annat om utformningen på experimentet hade varit annorlunda.</p>

Människan minns händelser och rörelser som hon själv genomfört bättre än de hon fått berättade för sig. Minnet för händelser och rörelser behandlas i det episodiska minnet. Multimodal memory theory är en teori om det episodiska minnet vilket bland annat behandlar förkunskapernas och modaliteternas betydelse för minneskapaciteten. Då människan genomför något används den motoriska modaliteten och då hon får höra något berättas används den verbala modaliteten. Det som har undersökts är om minnet och förståelsen för komplexa och tekniska lösningar påverkas av vilket modalitet som används vid inkodningen. Undersökningen visade inte någon skillnad på förståelse eller minneskapacitet för komplexa och tekniska lösningar, beroende av vilket modalitet som används vid inkodningen. En anledning till att undersökningen inte visade någon skillnad kan vara att mätredskapet var för trubbigt. Det är även möjligt att resultatet hade blivit ett annat om utformningen på experimentet hade varit annorlunda.