The effectiveness of parenting programs in preventing child problem behaviors have been increasingly supported in the literature. However, studies revealed contradictory findings of how children with severe problem levels benefit from the programs. In this study, I performed secondary analysis on parent-reported externalizing behaviors, ADHD and ODD symptoms of 749 children, aged 3-12 years, to evaluate the effectiveness of four different parenting programs on children with clinical and non-clinical problems. Mixed design ANOVA models revealed that the programs significantly reduced children’s externalizing behaviors, ADHD and ODD symptoms at post-test. Furthermore, the same mixed design ANOVA models and follow-up tests revealed consistent significant differences in program response for children with and without initial clinical problems on all outcomes. Cohen’s d within-group change effect sizes showed consistently large program effects for children with clinical problem levels on all outcomes. Findings indicate that group-based parenting programs are effective for children with externalizing behavior, ADHD and ODD symptoms, at least in the short term, and that children with clinical problem levels may benefit substantially.

abstract: Studies of peer victimization typically focus on behavioral characteristics of the victims, and frequently overlook the role that peers may play. The current study extended previous research by examining how time spent with two types of peers (externalizing and socially competent) can serve as a risk or protective factor for preschoolers' victimization, and how victimization may differ for boys and girls. In addition, the study explored how affiliating with same-sex and other-sex externalizing and socially competent peers may differentially relate to victimization. Results showed that girls who affiliated with externalizing female peers were significantly more at risk for victimization. In addition, boys and girls who spent time with socially competent male peers (but not female peers) negatively predicted victimization. The results indicate that children's peers, in certain circumstances, may play an important role in victimization. These findings also highlight the importance of considering children's and peers' gender when studying peer processes. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Family and Human Development 2011

abstract: The present study tested the factor structure of the externalizing disorders (e.g. attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder (SE), and substance experimentation (SE) ) in adolescence. In addition, this study tested the influence of the GABRA2 gene on the factors of the externalizing spectrum. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to test the factor structure of the externalizing spectrum. Specifically, three competing alternate confirmatory factor analytic models were tested: a one-factor model where all disorders loaded onto a single externalizing factor, a two-factor model where CD and SE loaded onto one factor and ADHD loaded onto another, and a three-factor model, where all three disorders loaded onto separate factors. Structural equation modeling was used to test the effect of a GABRA2 SNP, rs279858, on the factors of the externalizing spectrum. Analyses revealed that a three-factor model of externalizing disorders with correlated factors fit the data best. Additionally, GABRA2 had a significant effect on the SE factor in adolescence, but not on the CD or ADHD factors. These findings demonstrate that the externalizing disorders in adolescence share commonalities but also have separate sources of systematic variance. Furthermore, biological mechanisms may act as a unique etiological factor in the development of adolescent substance experimentation. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Psychology 2012

Past research has explored the concurrent and longitudinal associations between externalizing behaviours, marijuana use, and academic outcomes and has found that externalizing behaviours and marijuana use negatively affect academic performance. However, precursors to these pathways are not well understood. Early evidence of academic aptitude is an important predictor of academic performance in high school. Performance at a young age does not guarantee results in high school and low early academic aptitude does not necessarily result in low later performance. It is important to understand the factors that may impact students’ academic performance as they proceed through middle school and high school, and how early academic aptitude can influence risk factors that impact later academic performance. This project examines the role that marijuana use and externalizing behaviours play in the association between early academic aptitude and later academic performance. The project uses six waves of data from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey (V-HYS), a 10-year prospective longitudinal study. A community-based sample of youth (N = 662; 48% male; ages 12 to 18) were surveyed biannually from 2003 (W1) to 2014 (W6). Frequency of marijuana use over the past year and externalizing behaviours were assessed at each time point. To assess academic aptitude, participants’ British Columbia Foundation Skills Assessment (FSA) percentile scores in numeracy, reading, and writing were measured in grades 7 and/or 10. Academic performance was assessed using participants’ provincially reported grade 12 English and Math course percentage grades as well as self-reported grade 12 grades. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the possible mediating and moderating effect of marijuana frequency and externalizing behaviours in the association between academic aptitude and academic performance. Academic aptitude was positively associated with academic performance (B = .59, SE = .04, p < .001) and negatively associated with marijuana use (B = -.21, SE = .04, p < .001). Marijuana use was negatively associated with academic performance (B = -.25, SE = .04, p < .001). The indirect effect of marijuana use was significant (b = .04, SE = .01, 95% CI = .018, .068). In terms of moderation, for the High Externalizing group (n = 75, 47% males), no paths were significant. For the Low Externalizing group (n = 445, 49% males), all paths were significant, and the indirect effect was significant (B = .05, SE = .02, CI = 0.01, 0.08). Marijuana use mediates the association between early academic aptitude and later academic performance, indicating the importance of early prevention and intervention. Externalizing behaviours moderated this association. While youth with externalizing behaviours are at high risk for marijuana use and should be targeted for intervention, youth who do not exhibit externalizing behaviours should also be included for prevention and intervention and may require different strategies. / Graduate

abstract: It is well-established that maternal depression is significantly related to internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems and psychopathology in general. However, research suggests maternal depression does not account for all the variance of these outcomes and that other family contextual factors should be investigated. The role of fathers beyond their simple presence or absence is one factor that needs to be further investigated in the context of maternal depression. The proposed study used prospective and cross-sectional analyses to examine father effects (i.e., paternal depression, alcohol use, involvement, and familism) on youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms within the context of maternal depression. The sample consisted of 405 Mexican-American families who had a student in middle school. Data were collected when the students were in 7th and 10th grade. Results from path analyses revealed that maternal depression significantly predicted concurrent youth internalizing symptoms in 7th and 10th grade and externalizing symptoms in 10th grade. In contrast, paternal depression was not related to adolescent symptomatology at either time point, nor was paternal alcoholism, and analyses failed to support moderating effects for any of the paternal variables. However, paternal involvement (father-report) uniquely predicted youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms over and above maternal depression in 7th grade. Youth report of paternal involvement uniquely predicted both internalizing and externalizing in 7th and 10th grade. Paternal familism uniquely predicted youth externalizing symptoms in 7th grade. The present findings support that maternal depression, but not paternal depression, is associated with concurrent levels of youth symptomatology in adolescence. The study did not support that fathers adjustment moderated (exacerbate or buffer) maternal depression effects. However, paternal involvement and paternal familism showed compensatory effects on youth symptomatology in concurrent analyses. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Psychology 2013

This study examined the role of nonresidential, Black fathers in the psychosocial adjustment of Black adolescents from single-mother households. Participants included 107 noncohabiting Black parental dyads with children between the ages of 12 and 18 years. Participants completed measures of positive parenting, parent-child relationship quality, depressive symptoms, coparenting relationship quality, and adolescents’ emotional and behavioral functioning. Results of hierarchical multiple regressions found that father factors contributed unique variance to adolescent outcomes when using father-reported and combined father- and mother-reported adolescent functioning. Coparenting relationship quality mediated the relationship between father-child relationship quality and adolescent behavioral problems when using mother-reported and combined father- and mother-reported adolescent functioning. This study highlights the unique contributions of nonresident Black father factors to adolescent outcomes and supports the need for further research in this area.

Differences in family structure have been linked to several mental health outcomes, where children living in a nuclear family setting are best-off, while children in joint physical custody are second best followed by those living mostly and only with one parent. One of the biggest changes in recent years is that joint physical custody is growing more common. The dependent variables in this thesis were three dimensions of mental health from the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Data from 6th and 9th graders in the entire Sweden 2009 was used. Regression modelling showed differences in mental health between the family structures throughout, although children in  joint physical custody was not significantly different from those in nuclear families (reference category) in half of the models. Children living mostly with one parent reported the third worst levels of problematic behaviour and prevalence of low prosocial behaviour while those living with just one parent were worst off. Stratifying by gender did reveal small coefficient differences and so did controls for birth region. This thesis, although in a line of other publications based on this study can help shape future guidelines for e.g. social workers.

Externalizing behaviors among adolescents continue to concern researchers and clinicians nationwide, especially among Latinos who are part of the largest and fastest growing minority population in the U. S. This dissertation begins by describing an eco-developmental model, which provides the theoretical framework used to conceptualize the systemic factors being studied and by reviewing the relevant literature regarding the influence of parental warmth, parental behavioral control, the adolescent-teacher relationship, and academic achievement on externalizing behavior among Latino adolescents. This study uses the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health survey (Add Health) data to analyze direct and indirect effects of parenting and school-related factors on externalizing behavior among Latino adolescents over four waves of time. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), latent growth curve modeling, bootstrapping, and latent scoring were all employed to test the hypothesized models. Results indicated that higher levels of maternal warmth, the adolescent-teacher relationship and academic achievement were all negatively associated with initial levels of externalizing behavior and in some cases negatively predicted the rate of change of externalizing behavior. Paternal warmth, behavioral control and academic achievement were all found to be positively associated with academic achievement. In terms of indirect effects, paternal warmth negatively predicted initial levels and the slope of externalizing behavior through academic achievement. Behavioral control was also negatively predictive of initial levels and the slope of externalizing behavior through academic achievement. Finally, direct and indirect effects were found between the adolescent-teacher relationship and both initial levels and the slope of externalizing behavior through academic achievement. Implications for these findings are discussed according to an eco-developmental framework, and culturally appropriate recommendations for clinicians and educators are offered to facilitate the increase of parental warmth and behavioral control in Latino families and for improving the adolescent-teacher relationship in school systems. A culturally adapted parenting training model and a strong evidence-based, family therapy intervention is recommended to clinicians to address these issues in Latino families and critical race theory (CRT) and Latino critical race theory (LatCrit) are implemented to inform recommendations offered to educators to address the academic-specific factors influencing externalizing behaviors among Latino adolescents.

Externalizing disorders, as described by DSM-V (2013), are an empirically supported group of mental health conditions characterized by impulsiveness, antisocial behaviors, and disruptive conduct. These include Conduct Disorder (CD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Impulse Control Disorders (ICDs). Symptoms often emerge during childhood or adolescence, when brain development is still ongoing. A prematurely-developed prefrontal cortex, paired with reward-seeking and emotional responses in youth, can contribute to impulsive behaviors and limited ability to predict the consequences of one’s actions (Casey, Jones, & Hare, 2008). Compared to females, males tend to be diagnosed with higher rates of externalizing disorders (Kerr, Reinke, & Eddy, 2013), which may place them at higher risk for engaging in risky and/or harmful behaviors. Research indicates that youth with externalizing disorders engage in a number of risky/harmful behaviors that could have negative consequences. A meta-analysis by Allely (2014) suggests that certain externalizing disorders, such as ADHD, may be a risk factor for self-harm behaviors in child, adolescent, and adult populations. Further, those with externalizing disorders in late childhood tend to have co-morbid depression and are more prone to suicidal ideation and suicide attempts during late adolescence and early adulthood (Kerr, Reinke, & Eddy, 2013). Others have also found a strong connection between externalizing disorders and suicidal behaviors among youth (Beautrais, 2000; Goldston et al., 1998; Hills, Cox, McWilliams, & Sareen, 2005; Verona & colleagues, 2000; 2001; 2004). Moreover, externalizing disorders, such as ADHD or CD, are correlated with sexual offending behaviors, which may be a result of sexual disinhibition (Kafka, 2012). While diverse, persons who have engaged in sexually abusive behavior often evidence antisocial behaviors and diagnoses of ADHD and CD (Prendergast, 2004; Shields, 1995). Grant et al. (2009) additionally indicated that the presence of trauma may also contribute to behavioral problems that resemble externalizing disorders. The current study aims to investigate male adolescents with and without externalizing disorders (i.e., ADHD, ODD, CD, and ICDs) by investigating a sample of youth in a residential treatment facility for sexually abusive behaviors (N = 295). Data related to adolescents’ self-harm behaviors, suicidal ideation and/or attempts, sexual offending behaviors, arrest histories, and diagnostic mental health histories were gathered from archival records. Within the sample, 234 participants were diagnosed with at least one externalizing disorder, including ADHD (n = 209), ODD (n = 91), CD (n = 102), and ICDs (n = 50). Chi-square analyses and one-way ANOVAs will be conducted to explore relationships among externalizing disorders, presence and frequency of self-harm behaviors and/or suicide attempts, frequency and types of sexual offenses committed, and frequency and types of arrest. Presence of PTSD diagnoses and Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) will also be taken into consideration, as previous literature suggests that early sexual, physical, and emotional trauma may also contribute to behavioral problems and sexual offending behaviors in adolescents (Grant et al., 2009). The goal of the current study is to fill gaps within the literature by identifying areas of concern among adolescents with externalizing disorders. The findings from the current study will be discussed in terms of clinical implications regarding risk reduction, prevention, and treatment.

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