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We develop a composite multiphysics model of excitation-contraction coupling for a rat ventricular myocyte under voltage clamp (VC) conditions to: (1) probe mechanisms underlying the response to Ca2+-perturbation; (2) investigate the factors influencing its electromechanical response; and (3) examine its rate-dependent behavior (particularly the force-frequency response (FFR)). Motivation for the study was to pinpoint key control variables influencing calcium-induced calcium-release (CICR) and examine its role in the context of a physiological control system regulating cytosolic Ca2+ concentration and hence the cardiac contractile response. Our cell model consists of an electrical-equivalent model for the cell membrane and a fluid-compartment model describing the flux of ionic species between the extracellular and several intracellular compartments. The model incorporates frequency-dependent calmodulin (CaM) mediated spatially heterogenous interaction of calcineurin (CaN) and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase-II (CaMKII) with their principal targets and accounts for rate-dependent, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-mediated up-regulation. We also incorporate a biophysical model for cardiac contractile mechanics to study the factors influencing force response. The model reproduces measured VC data published by several laboratories, and generates graded Ca2+-release with high Ca2+ gain by achieving negative feedback control and Ca2+-homeostasis. We examine the dependence of cellular contractile response on: (1) the amount of activator Ca2+ available; (2) the type of mechanical load applied; (3) temperature (22 to 38ºC); and (4) myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity. We demonstrate contraction-relaxation coupling over a wide range of physiological perturbations. Our model reproduces positive peak FFR observed in rat ventricular myocytes and provides quantitative insight into the underlying rate-dependence of CICR. The role of Ca2+ regulating mechanisms are examined in handling induced Ca2+-perturbations using a rigorous cellular Ca2+ balance. Extensive testing of the composite model elucidates the importance of various direct and indirect modulatory influences on the cellular twitch-response with wide agreement with measured data on all accounts. We identify cAMP-mediated stimulation, and rate-dependent CaMKII-mediated up-regulation of Ca2+-trigger current (ICaL) as the key mechanisms underlying the aforementioned positive FFR. Our model provides biophysically-based explanations of phenomena associated with CICR and provides mechanistic insights into whole-cell responses to a wide variety of testing approaches used in studies of cardiac myofilament contractility.

I takt med att Sveriges elsystem byggs ut och allt större andel elenergi kommer från förnybar och väderberoende elproduktion såsom vind, så ökar även behovet av stödtjänster som kan balansera frekvensen i elsystemet. Frekvensen i elsystemet fungerar som en indikator på om elsystemet är i balans och för att elsystemet ska vara i balans krävs att elproduktionen hela tiden motsvarar elanvändningen. Examensarbetet har utrett möjligheterna att leverera stödtjänster från en redan befintlig vindkraftpark och har även undersökt hur möjligheterna ser ut i framtiden i och med att marknaderna för stödtjänster utvecklas. I dagsläget finns fem olika frekvensreglerande stödtjänster i Sverige. Dessa är Fast frequency Reserve (FFR), Frequency Containment Reserve-Normal (FCR-N), Frequency Containment Reserve-Disturbance (FCR-D), automatic Frequency Restoration Reserve (aFRR) och manual Frequency Restoration Reserve (FRR). Dessa stödtjänster upphandlas av Svenska kraftnät för att upprätthålla balans mellan produktion och konsumtion i elsystemet. För varje stödtjänst finns olika krav och specifikationer som bland annat vilken frekvens som de aktiveras vid, hur lång tid aktiveringen får ta samt hur långt i förväg de upphandlas etcetera. I kontakt med sakkunniga och i litteratur så framgår det att det är möjligt att leverera någon typ av frekvenstjänst från de allra flesta vindparker. För att börja leverera stödtjänster krävs att vindturbinen har en effektomriktare, vilket de flesta vindkraftverk har i dagsläget. Därefter handlar det främst om program och mjukvaruinställningar i effektomriktaren. Annars fungerar det i stort sett som vanlig pitch-reglering av turbinerna. Inom detta projekt så har även driftdata från en verklig vindpark i Blaiken studerats, där tre olika testkörningar genomförts. I testkörningarna har man testat att styra produktionen från turbinerna genom att göra nedregleringar och uppregleringar för att dokumentera hur parken reagerar. Utifrån data från testkörningarna som jämförs med krav för olika stödtjänster kan slutsatser dras om att stödtjänsterna mFRR, aFRR samt FCR-N bör kunna levereras från Blaiken. De är stödtjänsterna med de mest generösa aktiveringstiderna. Resultatet visar även på möjligheter att jobba med parkstyrningssystemet för att förbättra parkens reglerförmåga och i bästa fall skulle detta kunna medföra att parken även klarar kraven för aktiveringstid av FCR-D.

The purpose of this study is to examine whether the implementation of quantitative easing (QE) and quantitative tightening (QT) in the United States has detracted from the integrity of the country’s macroeconomic environment. In other words, does QE impact macroeconomic stability? Then, evaluate implications and externalities of stability as they relate to sustainability efforts. QE and QT are relatively new phenomena, understanding their effects and implications for the greater economy is a worthwhile endeavor, not least because QE is a current practice of so many central banks internationally. This study has two parallel investigations; first, a time series analysis conducted with a VAR model investigating the relationship of QE/QT usage by the Federal Reserve (Fed) on the macroeconomic stability of the United States. The data used in this study includes 242 monthly observations spanning January 2003 - February 2023. The second, is an OLS regression analysis evaluating whether macroeconomic stability is potentially correlated with sustainability efforts. For this study, 23 annual observations spanning 1995 – 2017 were used. Due in part to the general unavailability of genuine progress indicator (GPI) data. Based on the analysis conducted using a VAR model at lag t-4, QE has a positive relationship with Producer Price Index (PPI) and Federal Funds Rate (FFR). This is in accord with previous empirical literature on the subject. However, the second path of discovery failed to yield significant results with regard to the link between macroeconomic stability and sustainability efforts. Mention of this study’s limitations as well as avenues for future research can be found in the conclusion of this study.

The increasing amount of renewable energy sources is applying more and more pressure on today’s power system. Additionally, plannable sources of energy, which are mostly non-renewable, are being decommissioned at a high rate to combat climate change. The decommissioning of non-renewable producers and the increasing number of intermittent sources of energy are causing an increasingly volatile power system. In addition to the lack of plannable production, the inertia from synchronously rotating machines is decreasing due to the lack of contribution from renewable sources. The inertia of a power system assists in slowing down large frequency changes. When a notably large difference between production and consumption occurs in a power system with low inertia, components which can quickly counteract these effects by supplying the system with active power, are needed. The low inertia can also cause problems to the synchronicity of the synchronously rotating machines in the system, namely the rotor angle stability. A lack of rotorangle stability can cause the synchronicity of the synchronously rotating machines to be questioned. Fast frequency response units supply the power system with active power for a short period of time to reduce the rate of change of frequency and frequency deviation, which in turn allows the self-regulating units more time to adjust their production. Furthermore, these units can improve rotor angle stability. Such units can consist of batteries which are both serially and parallel connected with their associated control unit. This thesis aims to, with the help of the power system analysis program PowerFactory, and its associated dynamic simulation tools, formulate a methodology which can be used in power system models to locate the best placement for fast frequency response units. The results show that the formulated methodology can be used to find the best position of fast frequency response units for frequency deviation-, rate of change of frequency- and rotor angle stability support.