Résumé: Le syndrome du X fragile, première cause monogénique de déficience intellectuelle héréditaire, découle de l'expansion du nombre de répétitions CGG dans le gène FMR1 qui, accompagnée de sa méthylation, conduit à l'absence de la protéine correspondante : FMRP ou « Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein ». La fonction de cette protéine reste encore incertaine; FMRP est une protéine liant l'ARN qui serait impliqué au niveau de la synthèse protéique, mais d'autres fonctions ont également été proposées. La découverte de nouvelles observations dans un système biologique simplifié nous permettrait de mieux comprendre la contribution réelle de ces rôles. En fait, nous avons confirmé dans les plaquettes sanguines à l'état quiescent, qui sont caractérisées par un faible niveau de traduction, la présence de FMRP sous forme soluble, contrairement à la majorité des autres cellules et tissus étudiés. Puisque l'activation des plaquettes, étape incontournable de l'hémostase primaire, déclenche de nombreux processus intracellulaires telles une réorganisation du cytosquelette et une augmentation de la synthèse protéique, nous avons étudié le comportement de FMRP subséquemment à l'activation plaquettaire. Des plaquettes humaines ont été activées par l'utilisation de différents agonistes et soumises à des protocoles de fractionnement afin de déterminer la localisation subcellidaire de FMRP. Lors de l'activation plaquettaire, nous avons observé une redistribution de FMRP, de la fraction soluble à celle contenant le cytosquelette, proportionnelle au pourcentage d'agrégation des plaquettes. Cette interaction de FMRP avec certains constituants de cette fraction a également été évaluée en présence de plusieurs agents chimiques influençant différents processus cellulaires. Nous avons mis en évidence que l'utilisation de substances exerçant une influence sur la polymérisation du réseau d'actine modifie le comportement de FMRP, suggérant que cette protéine puisse interagir avec un constituant des microfilaments. Dans la mesure où certaines équipes de recherche ont rapporté que les polyribosomes plaquettaires sont une partie intégrante du cytosquelette, et d'autres que les polyribosomes avaient la possibilité de lier spécifiquement le réseau d'actine, nous avons envisagé la présence dans les plaquettes d'une interaction entre FMRP et l'appareil traductionnel en interaction avec les microfilaments. Concrètement, nous avons mis en évidence par une approche classique d'isolation des polyribosomes, la présence de FMRP dans ces fractions, et ce, uniquement postactivation. La redistribution de FMRP, bien que compatible avec d'autres modèles cellulaires, lui suggère une nouvelle fonction au sein de la réorganisation du cytosquelette et du déclenchement de la synthèse protéique survenant lors de l'activation plaquettaire. Puisque ces phénomènes peuvent facilement être modulés dans les plaquettes sanguines, ces cellules humaines ont le potentiel de devenir un modèle plus que promoteur pour l'étude de FMRP et ainsi, du syndrome du X fragile.||Abstract: Fragile X syndrome, the most common form of inherited intellectual disability, results from the expansion of CGG repeats in the FMR1 gene which, together with its methylation, leads to the absence of the corresponding protein: FMRP or Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein. The function of this protein remains uncertain; FMRP, a protein showing sequence motifs characteristic of RNA-binding proteins, seems to participate in several cellular processes related to protein synthesis. Uncovering novel observations in a simpler human biological system, will allow us to better understand the real contribution of those suggested functions. In fact, we confirm in resting blood platelets, characterized by a limited translational activity, the presence of FMRP in a soluble form, unlike most other cells and tissues studied so far. Since platelet activation, a critical step in primary hemostasis, triggers many intracellular processes including cytoskeleton's reorganization and an increase in protein synthesis, we therefore investigated the behaviour of FMRP upon platelet activation. Human platelets were activated by means of different agonists and subjected to cell fractionation protocols in order to determine the subcellular localization of FMRP. Following activation, we observed a shift of FMRP from the soluble to the cytoskeleton fraction, which was proportional to the percentage of platelet aggregation. Moreover, this interaction of FMRP with certain components of this fraction was also assessed in the presence of various chemical agents that influence different cellular processes. We showed that agents affecting actin network polymerization modified FMRP's behavior, suggesting that FMRP might interact with components of the microfilaments. Some research groups have reported that platelet polyribosomes are an integral part of the cytoskeleton, and others that polyribosomes are able to specifically bind the actin network. We thus investigated the presence of an interaction of FMRP in platelets with the microfilament's bound translational apparatus. In fact, we have demonstrated by a classical approach of polyribosome isolation, the presence of FMRP in these fractions exclusively following activation. The resultant redistribution of FMRP, although consistent with other cellular models, suggests a new function for this protein in connection with the platelet cytoskeletal reorganization and the initiation of protein synthesis occurring during platelet activation. Since these processes can easily be modulated in blood platelets, these human cells have the potential to be a very promising model for studying FMRP and thus the fragile X syndrome.

Autism is one of the leading causes of human intellectual disability (ID). More than 1% of the human population has autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), and it has been estimated that over 50% of those with ASDs also have ID. Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited form of mental retardation and is the leading known genetic cause of autism, affecting approximately 1 in 4000 males and 1 in 8000 females. Approximately 30% of boys with FXS will be diagnosed with autism in their later lives. The cause of FXS is through an over-expansion of the CGG trinucleotide repeat located at the 5’ untranslated region of the FMR1 gene, leading to hypermethylation of the surrounding sequence and eventually partially or fully silencing of the gene. Therefore, the protein product of the gene, fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), is reduced or missing. As a single-gene disorder, FXS offers a scientifically tractable way to examine the underlying mechanism of the disease and also shed some light on understanding ASD and ID. The mouse model of FXS (Fmr1−/y mice) is widely accepted and used as a good model, offering good structural and face validity. Since a primary deficit of FXS is believed to be altered neuronal communication, in this thesis I examined white matter tract and dendritic spine abnormalities in the mouse model of FXS. Loss of FMRP does not alter the gross morphology of the white matter. However, recent brain imaging studies indicated that loss of FMRP could lead to some minute abnormalities in different major white matter tracts in the human brain. The gross white matter morphology and myelination was unaltered in the Fmr1−/y mice, however, a small but significant increase of axon diameter in the corpus callosum (CC) was found compared to wild-type (WT) controls. Our computation model suggested that the increase of axon diameter in the Fmr1−/y mice could lead to an increase of conduction velocity in these animals. One of the key phenotypes reported previously in the loss of FMRP is the increase of “immature” dendritic spines. The increase of long and thin spines was reported in several brain regions including the somatosensory cortex and visual cortex in both FXS patients and the mouse model of FXS. Although recent studies which employed state-of-the-art microscopy techniques suggested that only minute differences were noticed between the WT and Fmr1−/y mice. In agreement with previous findings, I found an increase of dendritic spine density in the visual cortex in the Fmr1−/y mice, and spine morphology was also different between the two genotypes. We found that the spine head diameter is significantly increased in the CA1 area of the apical dendrites of the Fmr1−/y mice compared to WT controls. Dendritic spine length is also significantly increased in the same region of the Fmr1−/y mice. However, apical spine head size does not alter between the two genotypes in the V1 region of the visual cortex, and spine length is significantly decreased in the Fmr1−/y mice compared to WT animals in this region. Lovastatin, a drug known as one of the 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors, functions as a modulator of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) pathway through inhibiting Ras farnesylation, was used in an attempt to rescue the dendritic spine abnormalities in the Fmr1−/y mice. Mice lacking FMRP are susceptible to audiogenic seizure (AGS). Previous work has shown that 48 hr of lovastatin treatment reduced the incidence of AGS in the Fmr1−/y mice. However, chronic lovastatin treatment failed to rescue the spine density and morphology abnormalities in the Fmr1−/y mice. Mouse models are invaluable tools for modelling human diseases. However inter-strain differences have often confounded results between laboratories. In my final Chapter of this thesis, I compared two commonly used C57BL/6 substrains of mice by recording their electrophysiological responses to visual stimuli in vivo. I found a significant increase of high-frequency gamma power in adult C57BL/6JOla mice, and this phenomenon was reduced during the critical period. My results suggested that the C57BL/6JOla substrain has a significant stronger overall inhibitory network activity in the visual cortex than the C57BL/6J substrain. This is in good agreement with previous findings showing a lack of open-eye potentiation to monocular deprivation in the C57BL/6JOla substrain, and highlights the need for appropriate choice of mouse strain when studying neurodevelopmental models. They also give valuable insights into the genetic mechanisms that permit experience-dependent developmental plasticity. In summary, these findings give us a better understanding of the fine structure abnormalities of the Fmr1−/y mice, which in turn can benefit future discoveries of the underlying mechanisms of neurodevelopmental disorders such as ID and ASDs.

No description available.

A proteína do retardo mental do X frágil (FMRP), codificada pelo gene do Retardo Mental do X Frágil (do inglês, Fragile Mental Retardation 1, FMR1) tem expressão significativa no encéfalo, gônadas e células proliferativas. A FMRP é uma proteína ligante de RNA, repressora traducional, que transita entre o núcleo celular, grânulos citoplasmáticos e polissomos. Sua associação a RNA pode se dar pelos domínios Tudor N-terminais, dois domínios centrais, com homologia à heteronucleoproteína K (KH) ou motivos RGG, ricos em arginina (R) e glicina (G), C-terminais. A abolição da expressão da FMRP por mutações no gene FMR1 é a causa mais frequente de deficiência intelectual hereditária entre homens. Transcritos desse gene sofrem splicing alternativo de quatro éxons, podendo gerar até 20 isoformas não redundantes da FMRP. A tradução de RNAm do FMR1 contendo o éxon 12 causa uma extensão em fase, em 21 aminoácidos na alça variável do segundo domínio KH (KH-2) da FMRP, cujos padrão de expressão e função ainda são desconhecidos. Embora a FMRP tenha alta similaridade com duas proteínas parálogas, proteínas relacionadas à FMRP, FRX1P e FXR2P, ela apresenta algumas características de expressão e função que lhes são próprias. A longa alça variável do domínio KH-2, por exemplo, não é observada nas parálogas e é característica somente de ortólogas da FMRP em mamíferos. Assim, é possível que o estudo deste segmento da proteína traga informações funcionais específicas para o encéfalo de mamífero. Demonstramos anteriormente, por qRT-PCR, que, em transcritos do Fmr1 de rato, a expressão da sequência do éxon 12 é regulada ao longo do desenvolvimento pós-natal precoce, de forma diferencialmente positiva no córtex cerebral frontal e cerebelo, em relação ao hipocampo. No presente trabalho, aprofundamos esses estudos, tendo como objetivo a análise cuidadosa da expressão desse éxon em isoformas da FMRP (FMRP+12ISO), pelo uso de um anticorpo dirigido ao segmento codificado por ele, em encéfalos do décimo segundo dia pós-natal (P12, controle positivo) ou embrionários. Para tal, foram realizadas análises por imunoistoquímica e, em P12, ensaios de cromatografia de exclusão molecular de partículas ribonucleoproteicas. Análises de níveis de RNAm e proteicos em fase embrionária (E12 a E20) do encéfalo do rato foram também conduzidas in vivo e in vitro, em cultivo primário de neuroesferas em suspensão, a partir da dissociação de vesículas telencefálicas de ratos em E14. Os dados de imunoistoquímica de encéfalo de ratos em P12 indicaram que (i) as camadas granular externa e a camada piramidal externa do córtex cerebral e as células de Purkinje no cerebelo são mais ricas em FMRP+12ISO; (ii) o giro denteado e CA3 foram fontes de FMRP+12ISO no hipocampo, porém em mais baixa intensidade; e (iii) o conjunto das isoformas da FMRP, incluindo as FMRP+12ISO, foram expressas em região periventricular dos ventrículos laterais em período pós-natal, sugestivo de células-tronco neurais do adulto ou recém diferenciadas. No córtex cerebral, as FMRP+12ISO foram expressas em áreas motora (segmento rostrodorsal), sensorial (segmentos dorsolaterais a laterais), auditiva (segmentos dorsolaterais), olfatória (córtex piriforme) e visual (segmentos ventrolaterais), além da área do cingulado (segmentos mediais) de ambos os hemisférios cerebrais. Os dados também confirmaram que, em P12, as FMRP+12ISO têm expressão mais pronunciada no córtex cerebral e cerebelo do que no hipocampo. À cromatografia, as FMRP+12ISO tiveram o mesmo padrão de distribuição que o conjunto das isoformas da FMRP, fracionando em complexos ribonucleoproteicos maiores que 600 kDa. De modo geral, a expressão das FMRP+12ISO foi baixa em E12 e E14. Houve concordância entre as análises por qRT-PCR, Western blotting e imunoistoquímica, corroborando a baixa expressão do éxon 12 do FMR1 na vesículas telencefálicas em E14. Observamos por imunoistoquímica poucas células sugestivas de progenitoras, na base do neuroepitélio, que expressassem FMRP+12ISO ou outras isoformas da FMRP. O córtex cerebral em E20 foi raramente positivo para FMRP+12ISO ou o conjunto das isoformas da FMRP. Por outro lado, células da camada mais superficial da placa cortical, indicativa de ser a camada I, mostraram expressão de isoformas da FMRP sem o segmento codificado pelo éxon 12 do Fmr1, em E18 e da FMRP, incluindo as FMRP+12ISO, em E20, de forma contínua em várias regiões corticais. Em neuroesferas em suspensão, a expressão das FMRP+12ISO foi muito baixa enquanto isoformas da FMRP, supostamente com a alça variável de KH- 2 em sua conformação curta, tiveram alta expressão nessas células. Desde as primeiras 24 horas sob condições de diferenciação neuronal in vitro, células de neuroesferas aumentaram a expressão das FMRP+12ISO, que se mantiveram alta no período analisado (12 dias in vitro), colocalizando-se com outras isoformas da FMRP. Ensaios preliminares in vitro pela interferência do RNA, em células imortalizadas C6, indicaram um RNA em fita dupla, entre dois testados, com capacidade de inibição de mensagens do Fmr1 que especificamente contenham o éxon 12. A expressão do éxon 12 do FMR1 no córtex cerebral frontal, humano, em envelhecimento foi baixa pela análise de RNAm, enquanto o total de transcritos deste gene apresentou-se em níveis significativos. Nossos dados sugerem que a expressão do éxon 12 do Fmr1 é mais significativa para FMRP+12ISO em células neuronais, durante um período crítico de sinaptogênese, no primeiro mês pós-natal do rato. O tecido telencefálico, embrionário não se mostrou uma fonte rica dessas isoformas, principalmente em células indiferenciadas, que foram francamente negativas / Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP), codified by Fragile Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene, is significantly expressed in the brain, gonads and proliferative cells. FMRP is an RNA-binding protein and acts as a translation repressor, which transits between cell nucleus, cytoplasmic granules and polysomes. Its association with RNA occurs via several domains, namely: Nterminal Tudor domains; two central domains with K-heteronucleoprotein (KH) homology; and C-terminal RGG motifs, that are rich in arginine (R) and glicine (G). The absence of FMRP expression triggered by mutations in the FMR1 gene is the most frequent cause of hereditary intellectual disability in human men. Four FMR1 exons may undergo alternative splicing, generating up to 20 non-redundant FMRP isoforms. The translation of the FMR1 mRNA containing exon 12 leads to an in-phase extension of 21 amino acids in the variable loop on FMRP the second KH domain (KH-2). The pattern of expression and function of this isoform are unknown. Although FMRP is highly similar to two paralogs proteins, FMRP-related proteins FRX1P and FRX2P, it presents some unique expression and function characteristics. The long variable loop of the KH-2 domain, for example, is not observed in these paralogs and is a hallmark of FMRP mammal orthologs. Therefore, the study of this protein segment can potentially bring information about its function specifically in the mammalian brain. Using qRT-PCR and Western blotting, we previously demonstrated that, for rat Fmr1 transcripts, the expression of sequences containing exon 12 is regulated during early postnatal development. In this period, expression of these segments in the frontal cerebral cortex and in the cerebellum is higher when compared to hippocampus expression. In the present work, we deepened these studies with the objective of carefully analysing the expression of FMRP isoforms containing FMRP exon 12 (FMRP+12ISO). For this purpose, we employed rat postnatal brains at the twelfth postnatal day (P12, used as a positive control) and rat embryo brain in immunohistochemistry assays with antibodies detecting peptides codified by exon 12. In this strategy, we also carried out molecular exclusion chromatography of ribonucleoproteins particles with lysates from rat P12 encephalon. Analysis of mRNA and protein levels in rat brain in the embryonic period [embryonic days 12 to 20 (E12 to E20)] were conducted in vivo and in vitro, in neurosphere suspension primary cultures, obtained by dissociation of telencephalic vesicles from E14 rats. Immunohistochemical data from P12 rat brain indicated that (i) the granular external layers and pyramidal external layer in the brain cortex and Purkinje cells in the cerebellum are richer in FMRP+12ISO; (ii) in the hippocampus, FMRP+12ISO can be found in dentate gyrus and CA3, although in lesser intensities; and (iii) FMRP isoforms, including FMRP+12ISO, are expressed in the periventricular regions from the lateral ventricles, suggesting their expression in adult neural stem cells or in differentiating cells. In the cerebral cortex, FMRP+12ISO are expressed in motor areas (rostrodorsal segment) and in sensorial areas (dorsolateral and lateral segments), specifically in auditory (dorsolateral segments), olfactory (piriform cortex) and visual (ventrolateral segments) areas, besides expression in the cingulate área (medial segment) in both hemispheres. Our data also confirmed that, in P12 brain, cerebral cortex and cerebellum have higher FMRP+12ISO expression when compared to the hippocampus. Chromatography data indicated that FMRP+12ISO have the same pattern of distribution than the FMRP isoform group, fractionating in ribonucleoproteics complexes heavier than 600kDa. Altogether, FMRP+12ISO expression is low in E12 and E14 rat brain. qRT-PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry data were concordant, corroborating the low expression of exon 12 in E14 telencephalic vesicles. In immunohistochemistry images, we observed few cells with progenitor phenotype, at the basal neuroepithelium, expressing FMRP+12ISO or other FMRP isoforms. In E20, cerebral cortex was rarely positive for FMRP+12ISO or other FMRP isoforms. Still, cells in the superficial layer of the cortical plate, possibly layer 1, were positive for FMRP isoforms that do not contain the segment codified by exon 12 in E18, brains and positive for the ensemble of FMRP, isoforms, FMRP+12ISO included, in E20 brains, in continuous portions of several cortical regions. In suspension neurosphere cultures, FMRP+12ISO expression was very low, while the expression of FMRP isoforms, supposedly with the variable loop of KH-2 in its short conformation, was high in. After 24 hours under neuron differentiation conditions in vitro, neurosphere cells showed increasing expression of FMRP+12ISO, which remained high during the period analyzed (12 days in vitro), co-localizing with other FMRP isoforms. Preliminary assays using RNA interference in vitro in an immortalized glioma cell lineage (C6), disclosed a double-stranded RNA, among two tested samples, with the ability to suppress exon 12 containig Fmr1 mRNA. The expression of FMR1 transcripts containing exon 12 in aging human brain frontal cortex was low, while total FMR1 transcripts levels were significant. Our data suggest that the expression of exon 12 from Fmr1 is more significant in rat neuronal cells during a critical period of synaptogenesis in the first postnatal month. The embryonic telencephalic tissue is not rich in FMRP+12ISO, which were notably absent from undifferentiated cells

A proteína do retardo mental do X frágil (FMRP), codificada pelo gene do Retardo Mental do X Frágil (do inglês, Fragile Mental Retardation 1, FMR1) tem expressão significativa no encéfalo, gônadas e células proliferativas. A FMRP é uma proteína ligante de RNA, repressora traducional, que transita entre o núcleo celular, grânulos citoplasmáticos e polissomos. Sua associação a RNA pode se dar pelos domínios Tudor N-terminais, dois domínios centrais, com homologia à heteronucleoproteína K (KH) ou motivos RGG, ricos em arginina (R) e glicina (G), C-terminais. A abolição da expressão da FMRP por mutações no gene FMR1 é a causa mais frequente de deficiência intelectual hereditária entre homens. Transcritos desse gene sofrem splicing alternativo de quatro éxons, podendo gerar até 20 isoformas não redundantes da FMRP. A tradução de RNAm do FMR1 contendo o éxon 12 causa uma extensão em fase, em 21 aminoácidos na alça variável do segundo domínio KH (KH-2) da FMRP, cujos padrão de expressão e função ainda são desconhecidos. Embora a FMRP tenha alta similaridade com duas proteínas parálogas, proteínas relacionadas à FMRP, FRX1P e FXR2P, ela apresenta algumas características de expressão e função que lhes são próprias. A longa alça variável do domínio KH-2, por exemplo, não é observada nas parálogas e é característica somente de ortólogas da FMRP em mamíferos. Assim, é possível que o estudo deste segmento da proteína traga informações funcionais específicas para o encéfalo de mamífero. Demonstramos anteriormente, por qRT-PCR, que, em transcritos do Fmr1 de rato, a expressão da sequência do éxon 12 é regulada ao longo do desenvolvimento pós-natal precoce, de forma diferencialmente positiva no córtex cerebral frontal e cerebelo, em relação ao hipocampo. No presente trabalho, aprofundamos esses estudos, tendo como objetivo a análise cuidadosa da expressão desse éxon em isoformas da FMRP (FMRP+12ISO), pelo uso de um anticorpo dirigido ao segmento codificado por ele, em encéfalos do décimo segundo dia pós-natal (P12, controle positivo) ou embrionários. Para tal, foram realizadas análises por imunoistoquímica e, em P12, ensaios de cromatografia de exclusão molecular de partículas ribonucleoproteicas. Análises de níveis de RNAm e proteicos em fase embrionária (E12 a E20) do encéfalo do rato foram também conduzidas in vivo e in vitro, em cultivo primário de neuroesferas em suspensão, a partir da dissociação de vesículas telencefálicas de ratos em E14. Os dados de imunoistoquímica de encéfalo de ratos em P12 indicaram que (i) as camadas granular externa e a camada piramidal externa do córtex cerebral e as células de Purkinje no cerebelo são mais ricas em FMRP+12ISO; (ii) o giro denteado e CA3 foram fontes de FMRP+12ISO no hipocampo, porém em mais baixa intensidade; e (iii) o conjunto das isoformas da FMRP, incluindo as FMRP+12ISO, foram expressas em região periventricular dos ventrículos laterais em período pós-natal, sugestivo de células-tronco neurais do adulto ou recém diferenciadas. No córtex cerebral, as FMRP+12ISO foram expressas em áreas motora (segmento rostrodorsal), sensorial (segmentos dorsolaterais a laterais), auditiva (segmentos dorsolaterais), olfatória (córtex piriforme) e visual (segmentos ventrolaterais), além da área do cingulado (segmentos mediais) de ambos os hemisférios cerebrais. Os dados também confirmaram que, em P12, as FMRP+12ISO têm expressão mais pronunciada no córtex cerebral e cerebelo do que no hipocampo. À cromatografia, as FMRP+12ISO tiveram o mesmo padrão de distribuição que o conjunto das isoformas da FMRP, fracionando em complexos ribonucleoproteicos maiores que 600 kDa. De modo geral, a expressão das FMRP+12ISO foi baixa em E12 e E14. Houve concordância entre as análises por qRT-PCR, Western blotting e imunoistoquímica, corroborando a baixa expressão do éxon 12 do FMR1 na vesículas telencefálicas em E14. Observamos por imunoistoquímica poucas células sugestivas de progenitoras, na base do neuroepitélio, que expressassem FMRP+12ISO ou outras isoformas da FMRP. O córtex cerebral em E20 foi raramente positivo para FMRP+12ISO ou o conjunto das isoformas da FMRP. Por outro lado, células da camada mais superficial da placa cortical, indicativa de ser a camada I, mostraram expressão de isoformas da FMRP sem o segmento codificado pelo éxon 12 do Fmr1, em E18 e da FMRP, incluindo as FMRP+12ISO, em E20, de forma contínua em várias regiões corticais. Em neuroesferas em suspensão, a expressão das FMRP+12ISO foi muito baixa enquanto isoformas da FMRP, supostamente com a alça variável de KH- 2 em sua conformação curta, tiveram alta expressão nessas células. Desde as primeiras 24 horas sob condições de diferenciação neuronal in vitro, células de neuroesferas aumentaram a expressão das FMRP+12ISO, que se mantiveram alta no período analisado (12 dias in vitro), colocalizando-se com outras isoformas da FMRP. Ensaios preliminares in vitro pela interferência do RNA, em células imortalizadas C6, indicaram um RNA em fita dupla, entre dois testados, com capacidade de inibição de mensagens do Fmr1 que especificamente contenham o éxon 12. A expressão do éxon 12 do FMR1 no córtex cerebral frontal, humano, em envelhecimento foi baixa pela análise de RNAm, enquanto o total de transcritos deste gene apresentou-se em níveis significativos. Nossos dados sugerem que a expressão do éxon 12 do Fmr1 é mais significativa para FMRP+12ISO em células neuronais, durante um período crítico de sinaptogênese, no primeiro mês pós-natal do rato. O tecido telencefálico, embrionário não se mostrou uma fonte rica dessas isoformas, principalmente em células indiferenciadas, que foram francamente negativas / Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP), codified by Fragile Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene, is significantly expressed in the brain, gonads and proliferative cells. FMRP is an RNA-binding protein and acts as a translation repressor, which transits between cell nucleus, cytoplasmic granules and polysomes. Its association with RNA occurs via several domains, namely: Nterminal Tudor domains; two central domains with K-heteronucleoprotein (KH) homology; and C-terminal RGG motifs, that are rich in arginine (R) and glicine (G). The absence of FMRP expression triggered by mutations in the FMR1 gene is the most frequent cause of hereditary intellectual disability in human men. Four FMR1 exons may undergo alternative splicing, generating up to 20 non-redundant FMRP isoforms. The translation of the FMR1 mRNA containing exon 12 leads to an in-phase extension of 21 amino acids in the variable loop on FMRP the second KH domain (KH-2). The pattern of expression and function of this isoform are unknown. Although FMRP is highly similar to two paralogs proteins, FMRP-related proteins FRX1P and FRX2P, it presents some unique expression and function characteristics. The long variable loop of the KH-2 domain, for example, is not observed in these paralogs and is a hallmark of FMRP mammal orthologs. Therefore, the study of this protein segment can potentially bring information about its function specifically in the mammalian brain. Using qRT-PCR and Western blotting, we previously demonstrated that, for rat Fmr1 transcripts, the expression of sequences containing exon 12 is regulated during early postnatal development. In this period, expression of these segments in the frontal cerebral cortex and in the cerebellum is higher when compared to hippocampus expression. In the present work, we deepened these studies with the objective of carefully analysing the expression of FMRP isoforms containing FMRP exon 12 (FMRP+12ISO). For this purpose, we employed rat postnatal brains at the twelfth postnatal day (P12, used as a positive control) and rat embryo brain in immunohistochemistry assays with antibodies detecting peptides codified by exon 12. In this strategy, we also carried out molecular exclusion chromatography of ribonucleoproteins particles with lysates from rat P12 encephalon. Analysis of mRNA and protein levels in rat brain in the embryonic period [embryonic days 12 to 20 (E12 to E20)] were conducted in vivo and in vitro, in neurosphere suspension primary cultures, obtained by dissociation of telencephalic vesicles from E14 rats. Immunohistochemical data from P12 rat brain indicated that (i) the granular external layers and pyramidal external layer in the brain cortex and Purkinje cells in the cerebellum are richer in FMRP+12ISO; (ii) in the hippocampus, FMRP+12ISO can be found in dentate gyrus and CA3, although in lesser intensities; and (iii) FMRP isoforms, including FMRP+12ISO, are expressed in the periventricular regions from the lateral ventricles, suggesting their expression in adult neural stem cells or in differentiating cells. In the cerebral cortex, FMRP+12ISO are expressed in motor areas (rostrodorsal segment) and in sensorial areas (dorsolateral and lateral segments), specifically in auditory (dorsolateral segments), olfactory (piriform cortex) and visual (ventrolateral segments) areas, besides expression in the cingulate área (medial segment) in both hemispheres. Our data also confirmed that, in P12 brain, cerebral cortex and cerebellum have higher FMRP+12ISO expression when compared to the hippocampus. Chromatography data indicated that FMRP+12ISO have the same pattern of distribution than the FMRP isoform group, fractionating in ribonucleoproteics complexes heavier than 600kDa. Altogether, FMRP+12ISO expression is low in E12 and E14 rat brain. qRT-PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry data were concordant, corroborating the low expression of exon 12 in E14 telencephalic vesicles. In immunohistochemistry images, we observed few cells with progenitor phenotype, at the basal neuroepithelium, expressing FMRP+12ISO or other FMRP isoforms. In E20, cerebral cortex was rarely positive for FMRP+12ISO or other FMRP isoforms. Still, cells in the superficial layer of the cortical plate, possibly layer 1, were positive for FMRP isoforms that do not contain the segment codified by exon 12 in E18, brains and positive for the ensemble of FMRP, isoforms, FMRP+12ISO included, in E20 brains, in continuous portions of several cortical regions. In suspension neurosphere cultures, FMRP+12ISO expression was very low, while the expression of FMRP isoforms, supposedly with the variable loop of KH-2 in its short conformation, was high in. After 24 hours under neuron differentiation conditions in vitro, neurosphere cells showed increasing expression of FMRP+12ISO, which remained high during the period analyzed (12 days in vitro), co-localizing with other FMRP isoforms. Preliminary assays using RNA interference in vitro in an immortalized glioma cell lineage (C6), disclosed a double-stranded RNA, among two tested samples, with the ability to suppress exon 12 containig Fmr1 mRNA. The expression of FMR1 transcripts containing exon 12 in aging human brain frontal cortex was low, while total FMR1 transcripts levels were significant. Our data suggest that the expression of exon 12 from Fmr1 is more significant in rat neuronal cells during a critical period of synaptogenesis in the first postnatal month. The embryonic telencephalic tissue is not rich in FMRP+12ISO, which were notably absent from undifferentiated cells

Le syndrome de l’X fragile représente la première cause de déficience intellectuelle héréditaire. Ce syndrome résulte de l’absence de la protéine FMRP. FMRP est proposée réguler, sous contrôles des mGluR-I et d’autres récepteurs, l’expression de protéines importantes pour la plasticité synaptique en se fixant spécifiquement sur leur ARNm et en modulant leur traduction. Des milliers d’ARNm cibles ont déjà été proposées dans la littérature, mais très peu ont pu être validées. Par approche de pontage covalent aux UV et immunoprecipitation (CLIP) couplé à une analyse microarray, nous avons identifié un ARNm comme cible unique de FMRP dans les neurones corticaux. Cet ARNm code pour une kinase contrôlant le niveau de deux seconds messagers lipidiques importants pour le remodelage des épines dendritiques. De plus, nous avons montré que l’activation mGluR-I dépendante de la kinase est absente dans les neurones Fmr1 KO, avec pour conséquence une altération de plusieurs espèces lipidiques du neurone. Ces défauts peuvent expliquer les altérations morphologiques et fonctionnelles des épines dendritiques, cause principale proposée du syndrome de l’X fragile. / Fragile X syndrome is the leading cause of inherited intellectual disability and is due to the absence of the RNA binding protein FMRP (Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein). FMRP is proposed to bind and regulate synaptic expression of mRNA targets upon mGluR-I activation. Thousands of mRNA targets have already been proposed in the literature, but only a few have been validated leaving unsolved the question of the genes mostly affected by the absence of FMRP in the brain of fragile Xpatients. The main project of the thesis was to identify the mRNAs associated with FMRP in cortical neurons by performing cross-linking immunoprecipitation approach (CLIP). We found that FMRP principally targets one unique mRNA which encodes an important synaptic kinase. This enzyme controls the level of two second lipid messengers important for remodeling of dendritic spines. Consequently, the mGluR-I-dependant activation of the enzyme is lost in absence of FMRP, leading to several lipid species alterations in the neuron. These defects may explain the morphological and functional alterations of dendritic spines, the hallmark of fragile X syndrome.

Résumé: Mémoire présenté à la Faculté de médecine et des sciences de la santé en vue de l’obtention du diplôme de maître sciences (M.Sc.) en biochimie, Faculté de médecine et des sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada, J1H 5N4. Le document présent est un mémoire par article, lequel explorera la fonction d'une protéine liant l'ARN, FMRP, dans la différenciation cellulaire. Cette protéine joue un rôle de premier plan puisque son absence conduit à des anomalies développementales durant la neurogenèse et à une plasticité synaptique déficiente. Ces anomalies sont observées chez la souris KO pour le gène FMR1, mais également dans le cerveau des individus avec le syndrome du X fragile (SXF). Ces derniers dont le gène FMR1 est muté présentent une déficience intellectuelle (DI). Puisque la DI est la principale manifestation du SXF, et que les neurones « normaux » expriment FMRP à des niveaux supérieures à ceux des autres tissus corporels, son rôle a presqu'exclusivement été étudié dans les cellules neuronales. Pourtant, FMRP est une protéine hautement conservée et est exprimée dans presque toutes les cellules du corps. Logiquement, FMRP devrait jouer un rôle important dans tous les tissus l’exprimant à des niveaux de base, bien que son absence dans les tissus ne se manifeste pas cliniquement. Cette polyvalence fonctionnelle est encore plus probable de par le fait que plusieurs ARNm différents ont la possibilité d’interagir avec FMRP puisqu’elle identifie ses cibles par reconnaissance de motifs. L'étude présentée se fonde sur l'hypothèse que FMRP effectue des fonctions de base critiques au développement de tous types de tissus humains, et non seulement dans les neurones. L’hypothèse sera davantage développée. Puis, un modèle innovateur de la différenciation cellulaire non-neuronal sera présenté pour l'étude de FMRP. L'enquête sur la distribution subcellulaire et les interactions dynamiques de cette protéine sera détaillée durant les différents changements morphologiques de la spécialisation et de la maturation cellulaire. Les résultats des expériences seront analysés en profondeur. Puis, un retour sur l'hypothèse en guise des résultats expérimentaux permettra de constater que FMRP semble bien jouer un rôle durant la différenciation cellulaire non-neuronale. Ce rôle est intimement lié à la réorganisation du cytosquelette et à la synthèse protéique locale, régulée dans les complexes mRNPs composés de FMRP et ses cibles d'ARNm qui sont régulés, stabilisés et transportés vers les régions en maturation. Ultimement, plusieurs éléments indiquent que FMRP doit interagir correctement avec de nombreuses molécules, décrites dans ce mémoire, afin de permettre aux cellules de se spécialiser et d'acquérir les caractéristiques désirées au cours d’une différenciation normale. / Abstract: The present article-based memoire will explore the involvement of an important RNA-binding protein, FMRP, in cellular differentiation. This protein is well-known for the developmental anomalies during neurogenesis as well as the loss of synaptic plasticity which occur when its gene, FMR1, is mutated. Since FMRP expression is most pronounced in neurons and because the absence of its expression results in the intellectual deficiency known as the Fragile X Syndrome, FMRP has nearly always been studied in neurons alone. However, FM RP is a highly conserved protein, expressed ubiquitously across the body. Additionally, its influence in cells can be vast since its motif - based RNA recognition renders it capable of binding a variety of transcripts. Logically speaking, FMRP should play a role of first rate importance in the other tissues where it is present. The clinical manifestation of its impact in those tissues is likely to be lessened only by the lower levels of FMRP expressed in the average human cell. The main hypothesis of the current study is that FMRP performs critical but basic functions involved in the development of all human tissues where it is present at basal levels, rather than exerting an impact limited to the nervous system alone. The hypothesis will be further elaborated. An innovative non-neuronal model will be presented for the study of FMRP throughout the differentiation process. The behaviour and dynamic interactions of FMRP during cell specialization and morphological maturation will be investigated. An in-depth analysis of the experimental results will follow. Returning to the hypothesis of the study with these results at hand, it will be concluded that FMRP does indeed appear to play a major role in the differentiation of non-neuronal cells. In fact, FMRP's function seems to be closely linked to cytoskeletal reorganization, as well as local protein synthesis through the formation of mRNP complexes with its target mRNAs, which are stabilized, regulated and transported towards the active areas of the cell in differentiation. Ultimately, it is clear that proper interaction between FMRP and certain types of molecules, described in this memoire, is required for cells to specialize and acquire the characteristics of mature cells through normal differentiation.

Human Caprin-1 and Caprin-2 are prototypic members of the caprin (cytoplasmic activation/proliferation-associated protein) protein family. Vertebrate caprin proteins contain two highly conserved homologous regions (HR1 and HR2) and C-terminal RGG motifs. Drosophila caprin (dCaprin) shares HR1 and RGG motifs but lacks HR2. Caprin-1 and Caprin-2 have important and non-redundant functions. The detailed molecular mechanisms of their actions remain largely unknown.

Le syndrome de l'X fragile est la cause la plus fréquente de retard mental héréditaire. Ce syndrome est du à l'absence de la protéine FMRP (Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein). FMRPest exprimée dans de nombreux tissus, et surtout dans les neurones et dans les spermatogonies. Elle possède un signal de localisation nucléaire (NLS), et un signal d'export nucléaire (NES), des motifs de liaison à l'ARN (deux domaines KH et une boîte RGG). La présence d'un NLS et d'un NES suggère que FMRP fasse la navette entre le noyau et le cytoplasme pour le transport de l'ARNm. Bien que la sublocalisation et le rôle de FMRP dans le noyau ne soient pas encore connus, dans le cytoplasme FMRP est associée aux polyribosomes faisant partie d'un complexe ribonucléoprotéique où elle interagit avec ses deux homologues FXR1P et FXR2P. Deux structures de liaison pour FMRP ont été identifiées et caractérisées: le "purine-quartet" et le « kissing complex». Plusieurs ARN ont été identifiés comme cibles potentielles de FMRP. Ces ARN sont derégulés chez les souris Fmr1 nulles, mais la signification fonctionnelle de l'interaction FMRP/ARN reste toujours partiellement connue. <br />L'objectif principal de ma thèse étant la compréhension du mécanisme d'action de FMRP sur ces ARN cibles, ce projet a été abordé en deux points principaux :<br />-Recherche de l'influence des protéines qui interagissent avec FMRP sur sa capacité (affinité) à se lier à l'ARN<br />-Recherche de nouvelles séquences/structures cibles de FMRP et analyse du rôle de l'interaction FMRP/ARN.<br />Nous avons pu montrer une interaction spécifique uniquement entre l'isoforme musculaire de FXR1P avec la structure de G-quartet. Cela nous a permis d'établir un rôle synergique et non compensatoire de FXR1P sur FMRP. <br />D'un autre côté, nous avons démontré l'interaction spécifique de FMRP avec une nouvelle structure présente dans l'ARNm de la Sod1 que nous avons appelé SSLIP (Sod1 Stem Loops Interacting with FMRP). La distribution de SSLIP sur les polyribosomes est altérée en absence de FMRP ce qui conduit à une faible expression de la protéine Sod1. En utilisant un système de gène rapporteur, nous avons montré que l'interaction FMRP/SSLIP favorise la traduction de la Sod1 ce qui nous a permis d'établir un nouveau mécanisme d'action de la protéine FMRP sur ces cibles ARN.

<p> Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited disease of mental impairment, typically caused by a mutation in the Fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMRJ) gene. The clinical features are thought to result from abnormal neurobiology due to a lack of the Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). Previously, it was thought that FMRP was confined exclusively to neurons; however, our laboratory recently discovered that astrocytes also express FMRP. Consequently, it is possible that astrocytes also suffer abnormalities as a result of a lack of FMRP. Astrocytes play integral roles in the development and maintenance of communication in the central nervous system. Therefore, it is now important to determine the contribution of astrocytes to the abnormal neuronal phenotype seen in FXS. In these experiments, neurons and astrocytes were independently isolated from wild type (WT) or FMRJ null mice and grown in a coculture. Neurons were evaluated using immunocytochemistry in combination with computer-aided morphometric and synaptic protein analyses. The findings presented here provide convincing evidence that Fragile X astrocytes contribute to the abnormal neurobiology seen in FXS . Fragile X astrocytes alter the dendrite morphology and excitatory synaptic protein expression of WT neurons in culture; and, importantly, when Fragile X neurons are grown with WT astrocytes these changes are prevented. Interestingly, the Fragile X astrocytes appear to act by causing a delay in development; even WT neurons grown in the presence of Fragile X astrocytes, that displayed an abnormal phenotype at 7 days in culture, exhibited nearly normal dendrite morphology and expression of excitatory synapses at 21 days. Furthermore, the results suggest that the dendritic abnormalities induced by the Fragile X astrocytes specifically target neurons with a spiny stellate morphology. This research establishes a role for astrocytes in the development of the abnormal neurobiology seen in FXS, and as such, the results presented here have significant implications for Fragile X research. The novel prospect that astrocytes are key contributing components in the development of FXS provides an exciting new direction for investigations into the mechanisms underlying FXS, with many unexplored avenues for potential treatment strategies. </p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)