Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:12:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 3808.pdf: 4533470 bytes, checksum: e6a8ff3aa0ac549522b76998ae9fbbba (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-02-17 / Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos / Aluminum alloys have low density and high corrosion resistance, and because of that this alloys are being increasingly used in aircraft industry. However, a downside of this alloys is its weldability in fusion process, which can generate defects such as H2`s porosity and formation of high temperatures cracks limiting its applicability. Seeking an alternative process, it was developed a solid state welding process called Friction Stir Welding - FSW. The main advantage of this process is that welding occurs at a temperature below the melting temperature of the material, eliminating defects from solidification. Since its invention, the FSW gets world attention, because structural alloys with difficult weldability showed excellent results metallurgical and mechanical after welding. Therefore, in this study the aluminum alloy AA2139 was welded by FSW, a structural alloy with a high potential for aerospace applications due to good combination of strength and fatigue and fracture toughness. Thus, it was evaluated the mechanical and metallurgical behavior of aluminum alloy AA2139 under different conditions of heat treatment, T3 and T8. The microstructural features were investigated using optical and electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) as well as the mechanical behavior was determined by bending testing, microhardness profiles, conventional tensile testing (including system analysis of deformation - ARAMIS) and tensile testing using micro-samples and also the temperature measurements were performed during welding. The results showed that welds in alloy AA2139-T3 and AA2139-T8 may show different results, even using the same tool and the same welding parameters. Moreover, the temperature reached during welding affects the precipitation in the welded region which determines the performance of the weld. / As ligas de alumínio apresentam baixa densidade e alta resistência à corrosão, por isso estão sendo cada vez mais utilizadas nas indústrias aeronáuticas. No entanto, as ligas de alumínio podem gerar defeitos como porosidade por H2 e formação de trincas a altas temperaturas em processos de soldagem que envolve fusão, limitando a sua aplicabilidade. Visando um processo alternativo, foi desenvolvido um processo de soldagem no estado sólido denominado Friction Stir Welding - FSW. A principal vantagem deste processo é que a soldagem ocorre a uma temperatura abaixo da temperatura de fusão do material, o que elimina defeitos provenientes da solidificação. Desde a sua invenção, o FSW obtém atenção mundial, já que ligas estruturais de difícil soldabilidade apresentaram excelentes resultados metalúrgicos e mecânicos após a soldagem. Por este motivo, neste estudo foi soldado por FSW a liga de alumínio AA2139, uma liga estrutural com alto potencial para aplicações aeroespaciais devido à boa combinação entre resistência mecânica e a fadiga e tenacidade a fratura. Para tanto, foram avaliados o comportamento mecânico e metalúrgico desta liga de alumínio AA2139 em condições diferentes de tratamento térmico, T3 e T8. Os aspectos microestruturais foram investigados usando-se de microscopia ótica e eletrônica (MEV e MET), assim como o comportamento mecânico foi determinado através de ensaios de dobramento, perfis de microdureza, ensaio de tração convencional (incluindo sistema de análise de deformação - ARAMIS) e ensaio de tração usando-se micro-amostras e por fim medições de temperatura foram realizadas durante as soldagens. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que soldas na liga AA2139-T3 e AA2139-T8 apresentam resultados distintos, mesmo utilizando a mesma ferramenta e os mesmos parâmetros de soldagem. Além disso, a temperatura atingida durante a soldagem influencia a precipitação na região soldada a qual determina o desempenho da solda.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:12:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 5325.pdf: 3683699 bytes, checksum: 93e192da88e53194c931c77433e3db00 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-04-09 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / Stainless steels are an important class of engineering materials with attractive properties such as high mechanical and corrosion resistance and thereby widely used in a variety of industries and environments due to its outstanding properties such as mechanical and corrosion resistance. These materials, which are usually considered difficult to weld by conventional fusion welding processes, have demonstrated outstanding performance when joined by Friction Stir Welding (FSW), a solid-state joining process. FSW input energy regulates the magnitude of the thermal cycle and the intensity of deformation during the process, and it can be controlled by the welding parameters, which affects the grain features and consequently the mechanical properties of the joints. The aim of this work is to evaluate the feasibility of producing friction stir welds of a 304 austenitic stainless steel and correlate this process to the microstructures and mechanical properties in these joints. The samples were produced using a polycrystalline cubic boron nitrides (PCBN) tool and four different rotational speeds. Microstructural investigation showed that all joints presented, besides the base material (BM), the three typical FSW zones: stir zone (SZ), termomecanically affected zone (TMAZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ). The ZTA exhibited a microstructure similar to MB, while ZTMA and ZM were characterized by dynamic recovery and recrystallization, respectively. In the advancing side of ZM was observed the formation of sigma phase, a brittle and undesirable phase. The welding parameters variation affected mainly the deformation experienced by the material, the average grain size and length of the weld zones. The mechanical tests were consistency with the observed microstructures, being the mechanical properties of joints higher than BM, which is very attractive from the technological point of view. / Os aços inoxidáveis são uma importante classe de materiais de engenharia que possuem propriedades atrativas, como a alta resistência mecânica e a corrosão, sendo extensamente aplicados em muitas indústrias e em diversos ambientes. Esses materiais, frequentemente considerados difíceis de serem soldados pelos métodos de soldagem por fusão convencionais, têm demonstrado um excelente desempenho quando unidos pela técnica de soldagem por fricção e mistura (FSW Friction Stir Welding), um processo de soldagem no estado sólido. Na FSW, a energia do processo determina a magnitude do ciclo térmico e a intensidade da deformação que ocorre no material durante o processo energia essa controlada pelos parâmetros de soldagem afetando características do grão e consequentemente as propriedades mecânicas das juntas. O presente estudo tem por objetivo avaliar a viabilidade de união de placas de aço inoxidável austenítico AISI 304 e relacionar processo, microestruturas e propriedades mecânicas nestas soldas. As amostras foram produzidas utilizando-se uma ferramenta de nitreto de boro cúbico (PCBN) e quatro diferentes velocidades de rotação da ferramenta. A observação microestrutural mostrou que as soldas produzidas apresentam além do metal de base (MB), três zonas típicas do processo FSW: zona de mistura (ZM), zona termomecanicamente afetada (ZTMA) e zona termicamente afetada (ZTA). A ZTA apresentou uma microestrutura similar ao MB, enquanto que ZTMA e a ZM foram caracterizadas por recuperação e recristalização dinâmica, respectivamente. No lado de avanço da ZM houve a formação de fase-, frágil e indesejada. A variação dos parâmetros de processo afetou principalmente o tamanho médio de grãos, a deformação sofrida pelo material e a extensão das zonas de soldagem. Os resultados dos ensaios mecânicos demonstraram coerência com as microestruturas observadas, de forma que as propriedades mecânicas das juntas soldadas foram superiores ao MB, sendo dessa forma atraentes do ponto de vista tecnológico.

O processo de soldagem no estado sólido Soldagem por Fricção e Mistura Mecânica (SFMM), tradução do original em inglês ¨Friction Stir Welding¨ (FSW), já foi estudado extensivamente e obteve resultados muito bem sucedidos em ligas de Alumínio. Especificamente para ligas de aplicação naval existe uma lacuna muito grande de conhecimento. Este trabalho tem por objetivo caracterizar e analisar juntas soldadas da liga de aço naval GL E36 através de SFMM. A espessura das chapas soldadas foi de 6 mm em junta de topo com ferramenta de Nitreto de Boro Cúbico Policristalino (NBcp). A velocidade de rotação da ferramenta foi mantida constante em 500 rpm e foram usadas velocidade lineares de 1, 2 e 3 mm/s objetivando-se diferentes aportes térmicos. Foram obtidas soldas de 1,2 metros de comprimento com características estéticas muito boas e homogêneas na superfície ao longo do comprimento das juntas. Todas as juntas foram produzidas com aquisição dos ciclos térmicos através de termopares colocados próximos a região da face da solda em diferentes posições no início, meio e final da solda. A ferramenta, mesmo após aproximadamente 8,5 metros de soldas, apresentou um bom comportamento ao desgaste sem perdas apreciáveis nas dimensões do pino. Para avaliação das propriedades das juntas foram retirados corpos de prova para análise microestrutural e de microdureza, ensaio de tração e dobramento, no início, meio e final da solda. Adicionalmente, foi usado ensaio radiográfico para detecção de defeitos e possíveis fragmentos da ferramenta proveniente de desgaste. E para a análise do comportamento da tenacidade à fratura foi usado o corpo de prova do tipo ¨compact tension¨ (CT-50) posicionado com a boca do entalhe na região da zona de mistura da solda. Todas as amostras de tração romperam no material de base. Os perfis de microdureza mostraram picos de até 400 Vickers para todas as juntas. A microestrutura consistiu principalmente de ferrita, martensita e bainita com diferentes níveis de refinamento e diferentes morfologias. Os melhores comportamentos em relação a tenacidade à fratura avaliados por meio da construção das curvas de resistência foram das juntas processadas com 2 mm/s e 3 mm/s. / The solid state welding process Friction Stir Welding (FSW) has been studied extensively and achieved very successful results on aluminum alloys. Nevertheless, to apply FSW on steel alloys more research is required. Specifically for steel grades for shipbuilding applications there is a wide knowledge gap. Thus, this work aims to evaluate the mechanical and microstructural properties of processed joints for the shipbuilding steel grade GL E36 using FSW. The weld plate thickness used was 6 mm using butt joint configuration with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (pcBN) tool. The rotational speed of the tool was kept constant at 500 rpm with welding speeds of 1, 2 and 3 mm/s seeking to achieve different heat inputs, i.e., different mechanical and metallurgical properties. Joints of 1.2 meters long with very good aesthetic features and homogenous surface along the length were obtained, proving the stability of the process. Thermal profile of all joints were taken using thermocouples placed near the joint region of the weld face at different positions: beginning, middle and ending of the weld. The tool even after approximately 8.5 meters of welds showed good wear behavior without appreciable loss on the dimensions of the probe. To evaluate the joint behavior, specimens for microstructural analysis and hardness, tensile test and bending were removed at the beginning, middle and ending of the weld. Additionally, radiographic test was used for defects inspection and detection of possible debris from tool wear. For the analysis of the fracture toughness behavior was used Compact Tension (CT-50) specimens positioned with the notch at the stirred zone. All tensile samples failed at the base material, i.e. the produced joints achieved a greater resistance than the base material after processing. The microhardness profiles showed peaks of up to 400 Vickers for all the conditions. The microstructure found consisted mainly of ferrite, martensite and bainite with different levels of refinement and different morphologies. The best behavior concerning the fracture toughness evaluation using the crack resistance curves were for the joints processed with 2 mm/s and 3 mm/s of welding speeds.

This study aimed to investigate the similar welding of several ferritic and austenitic stainless steels (AISI 304L, AISI 316L, AISI 410S and AISI 444) by the friction stir welding process (FSW), evaluating operational and metallurgical aspects to produce joints without defects. The FSW welding of four materials in this study was performed at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (Germany) due to the establishment of a cooperation agreement with the Universidade Federal do CearÃ. The welding parameters range were based on papers found in literature, for the other kinds of stainless steel, different this study, changes the parameters were changed to determine an acceptable combination of surface finish, absence of cracks and good penetration. The better welding conditions based on surface finish and defects free for each welded steels were subjected to mechanical evaluation through tensile test, bending test and microhardness test. In the same way, for the better welded conditions, samples were extracted to metallographic preparation and evaluated by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The results from microscopy techniques allows the correlation between microstructure with the microhardness profiles, as well as the causes of low mechanical properties for same welds by the identification of defects in the stir zone such, as voids and lack of penetration. The ferritic stainless steels welds showed the best results in mechanical assessment due to grain refinement that occurred in the stir zone and thermomechanical affected zone. The calculation of equivalent heat input showed that for stainless steel AISI 304L and AISI 410S, higher values of heat input determine the highest incidences of chromium carbide precipitation and other possible deleterious phases in the stir zone, however DL-EPR technique and mechanical testing have shown that it is possible to weld the stainless steels by FSW process with excellent corrosion resistance and good mechanical properties. / Este trabalho teve como objetivo, investigar a soldagem similar de diversos aÃos inoxidÃveis ferrÃticos e austenÃticos (AISI 304L, AISI 316L, AISI 410S e AISI 444) pelo processo friction stir welding (FSW), avaliando aspectos operacionais e metalÃrgicos para a produÃÃo de juntas sem defeitos. A soldagem FSW dos quatro materiais em estudo foi realizada no Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (Alemanha) devido ao estabelecimento de um acordo de cooperaÃÃo com a Universidade Federal do CearÃ. Os parÃmetros de soldagem foram baseados em trabalhos anteriores, para outros tipos de aÃos inoxidÃveis, diferentes deste estudo, e a variaÃÃo realizada na busca de parÃmetros que determinassem uma combinaÃÃo entre acabamento superficial aceitÃvel, ausÃncia de trincas e boa penetraÃÃo. As melhores condiÃÃes soldadas para cada aÃo, com base no acabamento superficial e na ausÃncia de defeitos, foram submetidas a avaliaÃÃo das propriedades mecÃnicas atravÃs dos ensaios de dobramento, microdureza e traÃÃo. Da mesma forma, para as melhores condiÃÃes soldadas, amostras foram extraÃdas para preparaÃÃo metalogrÃfica e avaliadas por microscopia Ãtica e microscopia eletrÃnica de varredura. Os resultados da anÃlise microscÃpica possibilitaram a correlaÃÃo entre microestrutura com os perfis de microdureza, bem como as causas do baixo desempenho mecÃnico para os aÃos inoxidÃveis austenÃticos, com a identificaÃÃo de defeitos na zona de mistura, tais como vazios e falta de penetraÃÃo. Os aÃos inoxidÃveis ferrÃticos apresentaram os melhores resultados na avaliaÃÃo mecÃnica devido ao intenso refino de grÃo que ocorreu na zona de mistura e na zona termomecanicamente afetada. O cÃlculo do aporte tÃrmico equivalente mostrou que para os aÃos inoxidÃveis AISI 304L e AISI 410S, elevados valores de aporte tÃrmico determinam maiores incidÃncias de precipitaÃÃo de carbonetos de cromo e de outras possÃveis fases deletÃrias na zona de mistura, entretanto a tÃcnica EPR-DL e os ensaios mecÃnicos comprovaram que à possÃvel soldar os aÃos inoxidÃveis pelo processo FSW com excelente resistÃncia a corrosÃo e boas propriedades mecÃnicas.

O processo de soldagem no estado sólido Soldagem por Fricção e Mistura Mecânica (SFMM), tradução do original em inglês ¨Friction Stir Welding¨ (FSW), já foi estudado extensivamente e obteve resultados muito bem sucedidos em ligas de Alumínio. Especificamente para ligas de aplicação naval existe uma lacuna muito grande de conhecimento. Este trabalho tem por objetivo caracterizar e analisar juntas soldadas da liga de aço naval GL E36 através de SFMM. A espessura das chapas soldadas foi de 6 mm em junta de topo com ferramenta de Nitreto de Boro Cúbico Policristalino (NBcp). A velocidade de rotação da ferramenta foi mantida constante em 500 rpm e foram usadas velocidade lineares de 1, 2 e 3 mm/s objetivando-se diferentes aportes térmicos. Foram obtidas soldas de 1,2 metros de comprimento com características estéticas muito boas e homogêneas na superfície ao longo do comprimento das juntas. Todas as juntas foram produzidas com aquisição dos ciclos térmicos através de termopares colocados próximos a região da face da solda em diferentes posições no início, meio e final da solda. A ferramenta, mesmo após aproximadamente 8,5 metros de soldas, apresentou um bom comportamento ao desgaste sem perdas apreciáveis nas dimensões do pino. Para avaliação das propriedades das juntas foram retirados corpos de prova para análise microestrutural e de microdureza, ensaio de tração e dobramento, no início, meio e final da solda. Adicionalmente, foi usado ensaio radiográfico para detecção de defeitos e possíveis fragmentos da ferramenta proveniente de desgaste. E para a análise do comportamento da tenacidade à fratura foi usado o corpo de prova do tipo ¨compact tension¨ (CT-50) posicionado com a boca do entalhe na região da zona de mistura da solda. Todas as amostras de tração romperam no material de base. Os perfis de microdureza mostraram picos de até 400 Vickers para todas as juntas. A microestrutura consistiu principalmente de ferrita, martensita e bainita com diferentes níveis de refinamento e diferentes morfologias. Os melhores comportamentos em relação a tenacidade à fratura avaliados por meio da construção das curvas de resistência foram das juntas processadas com 2 mm/s e 3 mm/s. / The solid state welding process Friction Stir Welding (FSW) has been studied extensively and achieved very successful results on aluminum alloys. Nevertheless, to apply FSW on steel alloys more research is required. Specifically for steel grades for shipbuilding applications there is a wide knowledge gap. Thus, this work aims to evaluate the mechanical and microstructural properties of processed joints for the shipbuilding steel grade GL E36 using FSW. The weld plate thickness used was 6 mm using butt joint configuration with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (pcBN) tool. The rotational speed of the tool was kept constant at 500 rpm with welding speeds of 1, 2 and 3 mm/s seeking to achieve different heat inputs, i.e., different mechanical and metallurgical properties. Joints of 1.2 meters long with very good aesthetic features and homogenous surface along the length were obtained, proving the stability of the process. Thermal profile of all joints were taken using thermocouples placed near the joint region of the weld face at different positions: beginning, middle and ending of the weld. The tool even after approximately 8.5 meters of welds showed good wear behavior without appreciable loss on the dimensions of the probe. To evaluate the joint behavior, specimens for microstructural analysis and hardness, tensile test and bending were removed at the beginning, middle and ending of the weld. Additionally, radiographic test was used for defects inspection and detection of possible debris from tool wear. For the analysis of the fracture toughness behavior was used Compact Tension (CT-50) specimens positioned with the notch at the stirred zone. All tensile samples failed at the base material, i.e. the produced joints achieved a greater resistance than the base material after processing. The microhardness profiles showed peaks of up to 400 Vickers for all the conditions. The microstructure found consisted mainly of ferrite, martensite and bainite with different levels of refinement and different morphologies. The best behavior concerning the fracture toughness evaluation using the crack resistance curves were for the joints processed with 2 mm/s and 3 mm/s of welding speeds.

Le friction stir welding (FSW) est un procédé de soudage inventé en 1991 par l’institut de soudure anglais, le TWI. Celui-ci suscite un vif intérêt de la part de l’industrie aéronautique par sa capacité de souder les alliages d’aluminium de la série 2XXX et 7XXX, à durcissement structural, réputés pratiquement insoudables. Ce procédé étant relativement récent, il fait encore sujet de recherches actives. Ce travail a pour objectif de prévoir le profil de dureté d’un joint soudé par FSW d’un alliage d’aluminium, le 2024 T3. Cet alliage étant à durcissement structural, il est nécessaire de prévoir l’influence de la température sur l’évolution de la précipitation au cours du procédé pour en déduire sa limite d’élasticité. L’estimation du champ de température durant le régime stationnaire du procédé s’appuie sur des travaux internes au centre SMS. La prévision de la précipitation au cours du soudage est effectuée à l’aide de deux modèles. Le premier modèle, à base d’équivalence temps–températures, est une proposition d’extension aux alliages d’aluminium sous-revenu du modèle de Myhr & Grong (1991) établi dans le cas des alliages d’aluminium sur-revenu. Le deuxième modèle s’appuie sur une discrétisation de la distribution des rayons des précipités, suivant le schéma numérique de Kampmann et Wagner (1983), pour calculer ensuite son évolution. Bien que le premier modèle permette de prévoir l’évolution de la dureté au cours de recuits isothermes, les profils de dureté simulés ne sont pas en accord avec les profils expérimentaux. Seul le deuxième modèle permet une prévision raisonnable de la microstructure, en accord avec les mesures réalisées dans la thèse de Genevois (2004), et des profils de dureté proches des résultats expérimentaux. Finalement, une expression analytique en fonction des paramètres microstructuraux du flux de chaleur lors d’un essai de calorimétrie différentielle (DSC) a été établie. Celle-ci donne la possibilité de simuler un essai de DSC, et de vérifier ainsi la cohérence entre les grandeurs thermodynamiques et cinétiques introduites dans le deuxième modèle de précipitation. / Friction stir welding (FSW) is a recent welding process invented by The Welding Institute (TWI). It is particularly interesting for the aeronautical sector due to its capacity to weld 2XXX and 7XXX age-hardening aluminium alloys, which were previously considered unweldable. This relatively new process is currently the subject of active research. This work aims to simulate the hardness profile of an AA2024-T3 friction stir weld. AA2024-T3 is an age hardening aluminium alloy, so it is necessary to predict the effect of temperature on the evolution of precipitation during the process to deduce its yield strength. An estimation of the temperature field during the stationary regime relies on internal work of the SMS centre. Precipitate evolution during welding is simulated using two models. The first one, based on the isokinetic strength, is an extension to under-aged aluminium alloys of the Myhr & Grong model (1991) established for the overaged aluminium alloy. The second one, based on the Kampmann and Wagner (1983) numerical framework discretizes the distribution of the precipitate radius to deduce its evolution. Though the first model can predict the hardness evolution during isothermal treatments, the simulated profiles do not match the experimental ones. Only the second one can predict reasonably well the microstructures in agreement with the observations described in the thesis of Genevois (2004) and also with hardness profiles close to the experimental ones. An analytical expression for the heat flux during a differential scanning calorimetry experiment has been established as a function of microstructural parameters. This gives one the possibility to simulate a DSC experiment and to validate the coherency between thermodynamical and kinetic quantities, as introduced in the second precipitation model.

Friction Stir Processing (FSP) has the potential for locally enhancing the properties of Al-Si alloy castings, for demanding applications within the automotive industry. In this thesis, the effect of FSP has been examined on three different cast Al-Si alloys:i) A Hypoeutectic Al-8.9wt%Si Alloyii) A Hypereutectic Al-12.1wt%Si Alloyiii) A Hypereutectic Al-12.1wt%Si-2.4wt%Ni AlloyThe influence of different processing parameters has been investigated at a fundamental level. Image analysis of particle size distributions and growth method of tessellation were used to quantify the level of particle refinement and the homogeneity of the second phase spatial distribution. Stop-action experiments were also carried out, to allow the microstructural changes around the tool during FSP to be studied. Two computer models have been explored, in order to predict the temperature distribution and the material flow behaviour. Furthermore, the stability of the microstructure of the friction stir processed material was studied after being heat treated at elevated temperatures. The changes in particle size and grain structure were examined, hardness measurements were taken across the PZ, and tensile testing were carried out at room and elevated temperatures.After FSP, the microstructure of the cast Al-Si alloys was greatly refined. However, differences in microstructure have been observed throughout the PZ, which tended to be better refined and distributed on the advancing side, than the retreating side of the PZ. Changing the processing parameters also influenced the size and spatial distribution of the second phase particles. By studying the changes in microstructure around the tool from the stop-action experiments, and comparing the results to the thermal distribution and material flow behaviour predicted by the computer models, it has been shown that the flow stress, pitch, and temperature of processing, all needed to be considered, when determining the effects that FSP have on the microstructure. FSP caused very little changes to the hardness of the material, while tensile properties were greatly improved, due to the elimination of porosity and refinement of large flawed particles. In terms of the stability of the microstructure after FSP, particle coarsening and abnormal grain growth has been observed during high temperatures heat treatment. Furthermore, the Al2Cu phase was found to dissolve into solid solution at elevated temperatures, so GPZs and solute clustering can then develop within the alloy during natural ageing.

The Swedish model for final disposal of nuclear fuel waste is based on copper canisters as a corrosion barrier with an inner pressure holding insert of cast iron. One of the methods to seal the copper canister is to use the Friction Stir Welding (FSW), a method invented by The Welding Institute (TWI). This work has been focused on characterisation of the FSW joints, and modelling of the process, both analytically and numerically. The first simulations were based on Rosenthal’s analytical medium plate model. The model is simple to use, but has limitations. Finite element models were developed, initially with a two-dimensional geometry. Due to the requirements of describing both the heat flow and the tool movement, three-dimensional models were developed. These models take into account heat transfer, material flow, and continuum mechanics. The geometries of the models are based on the simulation experiments carried out at TWI and at Swedish Nuclear Fuel Waste and Management Co (SKB). Temperature distribution, material flow and their effects on the thermal expansion were predicted for a full-scale canister and lid. The steady state solutions have been compared with temperature measurements, showing good agreement. Microstructure and hardness profiles have been investigated by optical microscope, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Electron Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) and Rockwell hardness measurements. EBSD visualisation has been used to determine the grain size distribution and the appearance of twins and misorientation within grains. The orientation maps show a fine uniform equiaxed grain structure. The root of the weld exhibits the smallest grains and many annealing twins. This may be due to deformation after recrystallisation. The appearance of the nugget and the grain size depends on the position of the weld. A large difference can be seen both in hardness and grain size between the start of the weld and when the steady state is reached. / QC 20101207

The purpose of this research was to use the Transvalor S.A. product, Forge3, to develop a finite element simulation of the friction stir welding process that improves the predictability of temperature evolution and material flow within the plunge portion of the process. Previous modeling created more heating within the billet than experimental results, probably due to the simplification of the simulation with adiabatic boundary conditions. More realistic tooling temperatures were included in this model as these affect heat evolution which is a determining factor in microcrystalline growth. These results were validated by experimental efforts using a billet and tooling instrumented with thermocouples used to evaluate the temperatures at specific locations over time. Simulation results were compared with previous experiments to validate the predicted material flow.

Extended plasticity mechanisms (EPM) allow a metal to undergo extended plastic deformation without failure. These mechanisms are responsible for the extended plastic deformation characteristic of hot working processes. In this thesis it is shown that electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) is capable of detecting EPM artifacts in the final microstructure of AISI 304L stainless steel (304L). Results also indicate that dislocation cells form in hot worked AISI 304L stainless steel. Additionally, in this study EBSD data collection and analysis is used with a design of experiments approach to model the presence of EPM artifacts in the final microstructure of friction stir welded 304L. Texture analysis of the welded material reveals a dominant shear deformation texture and a lack of the rotated cube texture. The shear deformation texture is characteristic of dynamic recovery (DRV) and continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX), while the rotated cube texture is characteristic of discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DDRX). The texture analysis results indicate that dynamic recovery (DRV) and continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) play a role in the final microstructure of the welded material, while DDRX does not. Design of experiments was used to find the relationships between the fraction of cell boundaries and spindle speed, travel speed, location in the stir zone, and tool temperature. The regression analyses reported that predicted fraction of cell boundaries were relatively high (approximately 0.70 or more) and changed by less that 20% in the stir zone and 10% in the TMAZ. The relatively high predictions indicate that in FSW 304L DRV dominates and limited CDRX occurs. The small changes in predictions across the experimental space indicate that the effects, while statistically significant, are not practically significant. Finally, an alternate tool temperature basis was developed, which provides a valid method for selecting welds which should have constant tool temperature.