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No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Taíse Ferraz Lyra (Versão Final).pdf: 1069993 bytes, checksum: 3407689a27bfac06aff01d4fda05f6f2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-24 / Outliers are observations that appear to be inconsistent with the others. Also called atypical, extreme or aberrant values, these inconsistencies can be caused, for instance, by political changes or economic crises, unexpected cold or heat waves, and measurement or typing errors. Although outliers are not necessarily incorrect values, they can distort the results of an analysis and lead researchers to erroneous conclusions if they are related to measurement or typing errors. The objective of this research is to study and compare different methods for detecting abnormalities in the price series from the Consumer Price Index (Índice de Preços ao Consumidor - IPC), calculated by the Brazilian Institute of Economy (Instituto Brasileiro de Economia - IBRE) from Getulio Vargas Foundation (Fundação Getulio Vargas - FGV). The IPC measures the price variation of a fixed set of goods and services, which are part of customary expenses for families with income levels between 1 and 33 monthly minimum wages and is mainly used as an indice of reference to evaluate the purchasing power of consumer. In addition to the method currently used by price analysts in IBRE, the study also considered variations of the IBRE Method, the Boxplot Method, the SIQR Boxplot Method, the Adjusted Boxplot Method, the Resistant Fences Method, the Quartile Method, the Modified Quartile Method, the Median Absolute Deviation Method and the Tukey Algorithm. These methods wre applied to data of the munucipalities Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. In order to analyze the performance of each method, it is necessary to know the real extreme values in advance. Therefore, in this study, it was assumed that prices which were discarded or changed by analysts in the critical process were the real outliers. The method from IBRE is correlated with altered or discarded prices by analysts. Thus, the assumption that the changed or discarded prices by the analysts are the real outliers can influence the results, causing the method from IBRE be favored compared to other methods. However, thus, it is possible to compute two measurements by which the methods are evaluated. The first is the method’s accuracy score, which displays the proportion of detected real outliers. The second is the number of false-positive produced by the method, that tells how many values needed to be flagged to detect a real outlier. As higher the hit rate generated by the method and as the lower the amount of false positives produced therefrom, the better the performance of the method. Therefore, it was possible to construct a ranking relative to the performance of the methods, identifying the best among those analyzed. In the municipality of Rio de Janeiro, some of the variations of the method from IBRE showed equal or superior to the original method performances. As for the city of São Paulo, the method from IBRE showed the best performance. It is argued that a method correctly detects an outlier when it signals a real outlier as an extreme value. The method with the highest accuracy score and with smaller number of false-positive was from IBRE. For future investigations, we hope to test the methods in data obtained from simulation and from widely used data bases, so that the assumption related to the discarded or changed prices, during the critical process, does not alter the results. / Outliers são observações que parecem ser inconsistentes com as demais. Também chamadas de valores atípicos, extremos ou aberrantes, estas inconsistências podem ser causadas por mudanças de política ou crises econômicas, ondas inesperadas de frio ou calor, erros de medida ou digitação, entre outras. Outliers não são necessariamente valores incorretos, mas, quando provenientes de erros de medida ou digitação, podem distorcer os resultados de uma análise e levar o pesquisador à conclusões equivocadas. O objetivo deste trabalho é estudar e comparar diferentes métodos para detecção de anormalidades em séries de preços do Índice de Preços ao Consumidor (IPC), calculado pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Economia (IBRE) da Fundação Getulio Vargas (FGV). O IPC mede a variação dos preços de um conjunto fixo de bens e serviços componentes de despesas habituais das famílias com nível de renda situado entre 1 e 33 salários mínimos mensais e é usado principalmente como um índice de referência para avaliação do poder de compra do consumidor. Além do método utilizado atualmente no IBRE pelos analistas de preços, os métodos considerados neste estudo são: variações do Método do IBRE, Método do Boxplot, Método do Boxplot SIQR, Método do Boxplot Ajustado, Método de Cercas Resistentes, Método do Quartil, do Quartil Modificado, Método do Desvio Mediano Absoluto e Algoritmo de Tukey. Tais métodos foram aplicados em dados pertencentes aos municípios Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo. Para que se possa analisar o desempenho de cada método, é necessário conhecer os verdadeiros valores extremos antecipadamente. Portanto, neste trabalho, tal análise foi feita assumindo que os preços descartados ou alterados pelos analistas no processo de crítica são os verdadeiros outliers. O Método do IBRE é bastante correlacionado com os preços alterados ou descartados pelos analistas. Sendo assim, a suposição de que os preços alterados ou descartados pelos analistas são os verdadeiros valores extremos pode influenciar os resultados, fazendo com que o mesmo seja favorecido em comparação com os demais métodos. No entanto, desta forma, é possível computar duas medidas através das quais os métodos são avaliados. A primeira é a porcentagem de acerto do método, que informa a proporção de verdadeiros outliers detectados. A segunda é o número de falsos positivos produzidos pelo método, que informa quantos valores precisaram ser sinalizados para um verdadeiro outlier ser detectado. Quanto maior for a proporção de acerto gerada pelo método e menor for a quantidade de falsos positivos produzidos pelo mesmo, melhor é o desempenho do método. Sendo assim, foi possível construir um ranking referente ao desempenho dos métodos, identificando o melhor dentre os analisados. Para o município do Rio de Janeiro, algumas das variações do Método do IBRE apresentaram desempenhos iguais ou superiores ao do método original. Já para o município de São Paulo, o Método do IBRE apresentou o melhor desempenho. Em trabalhos futuros, espera-se testar os métodos em dados obtidos por simulação ou que constituam bases largamente utilizadas na literatura, de forma que a suposição de que os preços descartados ou alterados pelos analistas no processo de crítica são os verdadeiros outliers não interfira nos resultados.

Den senaste utvecklingen av artificiell intelligens (AI) och djupinlärning (DL) har gjort bild- och funktionsmedicin till en högst trolig kandidat att tidigt anta tekniken. AI inom mammografiscreening syftar till hälsofrämjande effekter genom en förhoppning om säkrare bilddiagnostik. Röntgensjuksköterskans (RSS) arbete präglas av korrekt utförd bildtagning och ett aktivt aktualiserande av den egna yrkesrollen gällande såväl tekniska framsteg som förnyade arbetssätt. Litteraturstudien har upprättats i syfte att belysa potentiella effekter av AI på bilddiagnostik inom mammografiscreening. Genom manifest innehållsanalys av resultat erhållna ur ämnesrelevanta vetenskapliga studier publicerade i databaserna Cinahl och Medline under år 2019–2020 identifierades och beskrevs kategorier sammanställda av subkategorier med liknande innehåll. Effekter inom granskningsprocessen och diagnostisk säkerhet skildrar flera perspektiv gällande AI:s effekter på bilddiagnostik. Utöver en stundtals ökad förmåga till cancerdetektion vid AI-assistans har artificiell bildgranskning även visat sig kunna reducera arbetsbördan för radiologer i form av friskrivning av mammogram med låg sannolikhet för bröstcancer. Vid tillämpning av AI ses lovande effekter inom framförallt klassificering av bröstvävnad samt vid reducering av falska positiva svar. Forskningen förbehålls dock med kvarstående etiska dilemman och avsaknad av ett juridiskt ramverk, vilket lämnar utrymme för vidare studier. / Recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and deep learning (DL) have made diagnostic imaging a prime candidate to adopt the technology. AI in mammography screening aims at promoting health with hopes of higher diagnostic accuracy. The radiographers work is characterized by properly performed imaging and actively updating the profession regarding technical developments and renewed working methods. The aim of this systematic review was to illustrate feasible effects of AI on diagnostic imaging within mammography screening. Through manifest content analysis of results obtained from subject related scientific studies published 2019–2020 in the databases Cinahl and Medline the authors identified and described categories compiled by subcategories with similar contents. Effects within the image interpretation process and diagnostic accuracy describes several perspectives regarding the outputs of AI on diagnostic imaging. AI-systems have proven to be useful in both assisting with image interpretation and reducing the workload for radiologists by disclaiming mammograms with low probability of breast cancer. Most promising effects are seen in the classification of breast tissue and reduction of false positives, but research is challenged by ethical dilemmas and the need for a legal framework, which are areas suggested for future research.

Security deficiencies that occur in web applications can have major consequences. PHP is a language that is often used for web applications and it places high demands on how the language is used to ensure it is safe. There are several features in PHP that should be handled with care to avoid security flaws. Static code analysis can help find vulnerabilities in code, but there are some drawbacks that can occur with static code analysis tools. One disadvantage is false positives which means that the tool reports vulnerabilities that do not exist. There are also false negatives which means the tool cannot find the vulnerability at all which can lead to a false sense of security for the user of the tool. With the help of completed test cases, three tools have been investigated in a case study to find out if the tools differ in their ability to avoid false positives and false negatives. The study also examines whether the tools' rules consider the PHP language's vulnerable functions. To answer the research question, a document collection was conducted to obtain information about the tools and various vulnerabilities. The purpose of this study is to compare the ability of static code analysis tools to find PHP code vulnerabilities. The tools that were investigated were SonarQube, Visual Code Grepper (VCG) and Exakat. The study's analysis shows that VCG found the most vulnerabilities but failed to avoid false positive vulnerabilities. Exakat had zero false positives but could not avoid false negatives to the same extent as VCG. SonarQube avoided all false positives but did not find any of the vulnerabilities tested in the test cases. According to the rules of the tools, VCG had more consideration for the risky functions found in PHP. The study's results show that the tools' ability to avoid false positives and false negatives differed and their adaptation to the PHP language's vulnerable functions. / Säkerhetsbrister som förekommer i webbapplikationer kan leda till stora konsekvenser. PHP är ett språk som ofta används för webbapplikationer och det ställer höga krav på hur språket används för att det ska vara säkert. Det finns flera funktioner i PHP som bör hanteras varsamt för att inte säkerhetsbrister ska uppstå. Statisk kodanalys kan hjälpa till med att hitta sårbarheter i kod men det finns vissa nackdelar som kan uppkomma med statiska kodanalysverktyg. En nackdel är falska positiva vilket betyder att verktyget rapporterar in sårbarheter som inte finns. Det finns också falska negativa som betyder att verktyget inte hittar sårbarheten alls vilket kan leda till en falsk trygghetskänsla för användaren av verktyget. Med hjälp av färdiga testfall så har tre verktyg utretts i en fallstudie för att ta reda på om verktygen skiljer sig i sin förmåga till att undvika falska positiva och falska negativa. Studien undersöker också om verktygens regler tar PHP-språkets sårbara funktioner i beaktning. För att kunna besvara forskningsfrågan har en dokumentsinsamling genomförts för att få information om verktygen och olika sårbarheter. Studiens syfte är att jämföra statiska kodanalysverktygs förmåga att hitta sårbarheter i PHP-kod. De verktyg som utreddes var SonarQube, Visual Code Grepper (VCG) och Exakat. Studiens analys visar att VCG hittade mest sårbarheter men lyckades inte undvika falska positiva sårbarheter. Exakat hade noll falska positiva men kunde inte undvika falska negativa i lika stor utsträckning som VCG. SonarQube undvek alla falska positiva men hittade inte någon av de sårbarheter som testades i testfallen. Enligt verktygens regler visade sig VCG ta mest hänsyn till de riskfyllda funktioner som finns i PHP. Studiens resultat visar att verktygens förmåga att undvika falska positiva och falska negativa och deras anpassning för PHP språkets sårbara funktioner skiljde sig åt.

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This thesis is on Cognitive Science of Religion (CSR) and its relevance for the rationality of religious beliefs. An epistemical model for rationality is developed according to which: a person (or group of persons) is rational to hold a certain belief a) if this belief can be assumed to have been generated by one or more reliable cognitive mechanisms, b) applies whether or not she is aware of what these mechanisms are, but c) only as long as it does not exist or arise some reasons (defeaters) to question the belief; if they occur, she must d) reflect on it and find other reasons or grounds to hold the belief in question.      Two different positions are examined, namely: 1) negative relevance: the findings and theories in CSR undermines the rationality of religious beliefs; 2) positive relevance: religious beliefs need not be irrational in the light of CSR, in fact CSR may actually support the rationality of religious beliefs.      Two lines of argument can be distinguished among those who argue for a negative relevance: a) the natural explanations that are provided by CSR are preferable; and b) religious beliefs are irrational because they are caused by unreliable cognitive mechanisms.      Among those who argue for positive relevance two arguments can be distinguised: a) religious beliefs seem to come naturally to humans and therefore are probably true; and b) CSR confirms empirically that we are equipped with a "divine mechanism" that there are reasons to believe is reliable.      The conclusions are: CSR has negative relevance to beliefs in "finite supernatural agency", but not for the faith of "infinite supernatural agency". First, the first type of beliefs is easier to explain by being generated by unreliable cognitive mechanisms; secondly they are difficult to integrate with what we otherwise know about the world. A category that falls outside the scope of CSR and thus not even potentially can be affected, is beliefs in "supernatural non-agency". / The Impact of Religion – Challenges for Society, Law and Democracy

This bachelor thesis in applied mathematics and industrial engineering and management aimed to identify relationships between search parameters in flight comparison search engines and the exit conversion rate, while also investigating how the emergence of such comparison search engines has impacted the airline industry. To identify such relationships, several classification models were employed in conjunction with several sampling methods to produce a predictive model using the program R. To investigate the impact of the emergence of comparison websites, Porter's 5 forces and a SWOT - analysis were employed to analyze findings of a literature study and a qualitative interview. The classification models developed performed poorly with regards to several assessments metrics which suggested that there were little to no significance in the relationship between the search parameters investigated and exit conversion rate. Porter's 5 forces and the SWOT-analysis suggested that the competitive landscape of the airline industry has become more competitive and that airlines which do not manage to adapt to this changing market environment will experience decreasing profitability. / Detta kandidatexamensarbete inriktat på tillämpad matematik och industriell ekonomi syftade till att identifiera samband mellan sökparametrar från flygsökmotorer och konverteringsgraden för utträde till ett flygbolags hemsida, och samtidigt undersöka hur uppkomsten av flygsökmotorer har påverkat flygindustrin för flygbolag. För att identifiera sådana samband, tillämpades flera klassificeringsmodeller tillsammans med stickprovsmetoder för att bygga en predikativ modell i programmet R. För att undersöka påverkan av flygsökmotorer tillämpades Porters 5 krafter och SWOT-analys som teoretiska ramverk för att analysera information uppsamlad genom en litteraturstudie och en intervju. Klassificeringsmodellerna som byggdes presterade undermåligt med avseende på flera utvärderingsmått, vilket antydde att det fanns lite eller inget samband mellan de undersökta sökparametrarna och konverteringsgraden för utträde. Porters 5 krafter och SWOT-analysen visade att flygindustrin hade blivit mer konkurrensutsatt och att flygbolag som inte lyckas anpassa sig efter en omgivning i ändring kommer att uppleva minskande lönsamhet.