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Call number: LD2668 .T4 1961 C73

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1962 D54

Agriculture has been identified by the government of South Africa to play pivotal role in socio-economic emancipation of rural people and those living in common-ages. The government has made commitment to provide agricultural support services in order to increase and promote black entrepreneurs by 5% per annum. Given the socio-economic profile of the South African population and the acknowledgement of the importance of agrarian development in other countries, South Africa started its land reform after democratic government in 1994. Prior 1994, agrarian reform was based on the fact that very few black producers were actively involved in commercial farming. Attempts to correct this disparity through agrarian reform have led to several challenges such as distribution of land without balancing it with capacity-building programmes and have proven to be unsustainable and costly. Major causes of poor performance of farming based on Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises is lack of capacity in many aspects of running farming as a business and farmers are usually smallholders, producing crops in mixed inter-cropping, which result in persistent and continuous poor yield in a&' cultural production leading to poor financial returns and increase in pover1y level. Sustainability of agricultural projects are affected by the fact the at smallholder farmers do not have acquired knowledge and required skills needed for good management and proper daily operations of the project at technical level and lack of support ·om the community in buying local products Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (GOARD) invested its efforts on poverty alleviation projects on smallholder farmers who have demonstrated their potentials tor agricultural activities and have experienced benefits in the form of government programmes such as CASP (Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme), Agro-Processing Infrastructure, and Letsema among others. The study has identified the constraints that smallholder farmers face in their agricultural activities and made recommendations to policy makers that will assist smallholder farmers based on their level of participation in the agricultural sector which will assist in creating comprehensive, sustainable and appropriate capacity building models and strategies for agribusiness in order to contribute significantly to the eradication of poverty, reduction of unemployment through agriculture and creation of sustainable and market driven agribusiness in Gauteng Province, South Africa. There are six hundred and thirty five agricultural projects in Gauteng Province that are practicing intensive and extensive agriculture for vegetable production and supply the formal and informal markets with their produce. However, during the sample survey, only 160 projects were selected tor the survey to identify factors affecting sustainability of agricultural projects on poverty alleviation. The farmers that participated are located in City of Tshwane (20 farmers). West Rand District (60 farmers). Ekurhuleni District Municipality (25 farmers). Sedibeng (15 farmers) and City of Johannesburg (40 farmers). Data collected was subjected to analysis using SPSS and the regression analysis was used to determine factors affecting sustainability of agricultural projects tor poverty alleviation in Gauteng Province, South Africa. The results show that 40% (the majority) of the sampled farmers were between the age of 50-59 years, while 18% of these farmers never attended school. The results of the study revealed that 65.6% of farmers had a household size of between 4-6 people and generated farm income was less than R200 000 per annum. The linear regression technique reveals a significant determinants of sustainability of agricultural projects for poverty alleviation are attitude (t=-2.71 ): impact (t=5.86): farmer participation (t=2.82). educational level (t=2.16): farming experience (t=-2.84.): farming income (t=2.28): land tenure system (t=-2.58): and land acquisition method (t=-3.98). / Thesis (M.Sc (Agric economics) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2012

Purpose: The purpose of this was to assess skills and experience in commercial farming among black farmers; identify s kills required in commercial farming among black farmers; and empirically gain an insight of experience and constraints black farmers face in commercial farming. Design/methodology/approach : Qualitative and quantitative data collection methods were used. Qualitatively, 12 participants were interviewed and 41 participants answered a closed-ended questionnaire. The following variables were used to assess black farmers' s kills in commercial farming: skills in farm management principles; skills in decision making science; skills in farm record keeping; skills in farm risk management; skills in creating a competitive advantage for a farm business; skills in farm financial management; and experiences and constraints facing black commercial farmers. Findings: It was found in this study that there is a significant deficiency in black farmer ' skills in commercial farming. The study further found that black farmers require skills in farm management principles, decision making science in farming, farm record keeping, risk management in farming, creating a competitive advantage for a farm business and farm financial management. In terms of their experience from their successes and failures, black farmers perceive that they need to be committed and determined, to have passion, patience and perseverance, and need to work collectively in farming business. Research limitations/implications: A number of participants in both methods of collecting data limited the generalization of results. However, bridging of skills gap among black farmers could improve on their current practice in commercial farming. In their own experiences continuous support from relevant structures could impact positively in their commercial farming. / Thesis (MBA) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2010

Our understanding of the Later Stone Age (LSA) on the Greater Mapungubwe Landscape has until now been fairly limited. However, it is a landscape upon which foragers witnessed and partook in agriculturalist state formation between AD 900 and 1300, altering their cultural behaviour to suit their changing social and political topography. Nowhere else in southern Africa were foragers part of such developments. For this project a landscape approach was used to study the various changes in the regional LSA record as well as the way in which foragers interacted with farmers. In order to address these issues, data were obtained from an archaeological survey followed by an excavation of seven sites in north-eastern Botswana, part of the Greater Mapungubwe Landscape. These finds indicate that the local forager record varies chronologically and spatially, which had not previously been recorded. Foragers also used a variety of site types and in each a different forager expression was deposited, providing indications of their changing settlement pattern. Notably, this included a gradual movement into agriculturalist homesteads beginning by at least AD 1000 and concluding by AD 1300, when the Mapungubwe capital was abandoned. Thus, interactions, at least in some cases, led to assimilation. There is also clear evidence of exchange with agriculturalists at many of the excavated sites, but this does not always seem to be related to their proximity with one another. Performing a landscape study has also made it possible to make two general conclusions with regard to LSA research. First, these data challenge ethnography, displaying its limitations particularly with linking modern Bushman practices, such as aggregation and dispersal patterns or hxaro gift exchange, to LSA foragers. Second, a full landscape understanding combines the archaeology of multiple cultural landscapes and in this case also crosses national borders, two themes often neglected in southern African archaeological studies.

Thesis (MComm (Agricultural Economics)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Small‐scale agriculture is one of the few tools available to support improved rural livelihoods on a significant scale in South Africa. Access to output markets is a key obstacle for small farmers in generating higher incomes. Thus, the rise of modern markets (supermarkets in particular) is generally viewed as positive for the rural poor, although most commentators accede that there are challenges to be overcome in obtaining access to such markets. A literature survey indicates a mainstream point of view about the reasons for modern market exclusion, as well as the most appropriate policy responses. This viewpoint is characterized by an assessment that the “fault” for market exclusion lies largely with small producers – their personal characteristics, their production methods, and their location – rather than with these markets themselves. The corresponding logic is that if these issues are addressed small farmers will almost certainly be included in modern market supply chains. It is this study’s assertion that much of the research that has been undertaken to date is in fact incomplete, because it has excluded two key issues: The dominant supermarket business model; and the actual position of small farmers in those countries with high levels of supermarket concentration. An examination of the supermarket model suggests it is inherently hostile towards most producers, and that modern supermarket supply chain management strategies aim to maximize the extraction of value from other chain participants. Smaller producers are particularly hard hit by this strategy. The South African food retail market structure resembles that of industrialised countries rather than developing countries, and the largest local supermarkets probably have sufficient market share to exercise significant market power. Therefore, we should expect that the position of South African small farmers is similar to that of small farmers in industrialised countries, who are increasingly excluded by modern supermarket‐led supply chains. In light of this analysis, most of the current policy initiatives responses to address market exclusion seem woefully inadequate. Improving the quality of production, and small farmers’ access to skills and assets is important and necessary, but this study proposes that these actions on their own are not sufficient to guarantee access into modern supply chains. Insufficient research attention has been given to understanding how markets themselves become barriers to entry. This is a vital gap in local rural development policy: A market system that favours large over small farmers has the potential to exacerbate rural inequality and to neutralize policy aimed at supporting small farmers. Government needs to take the development of marketing opportunities specifically for small farmers more seriously, understanding that they face a very different set of market access challenges than do large farmers. They need to encourage and support the type of food networks and marketing structures that will have the greatest positive benefit on small farmers and the communities that they live in. This requires a different view of the workings of market networks, and a more critical assessment of how these impact on rural livelihoods. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kleinskaalse landbou is een van die min hulpmiddels beskikbaar vir ondersteuning op beduidende skaal van ’n beter bestaan in landelike Suid‐Afrika. Toegang tot produksiemarkte is een van die struikelblokke wat kleinboere in die gesig staar wanneer hulle meer produseer. Die opkoms van moderne markte word algemeen beskou as positief vir armes op die platteland, alhoewel kommentaar meestal daarop dui dat daar uitdagings is wat te bowe gekom moet word ten einde toegang te verkry. ʼn Literatuurstudie dui op ʼn hoofstroomstandpunt ten opsigte van die redes vir markuitsluiting, asook die mees gepaste beleidsreaksies. Hierdie standpunt word gekenmerk deur ʼn mening dat die “fout” vir markuitsluiting hoofsaaklik by die produsente lê – hulle persoonlike eienskappe, hulle produksiemetodes, en hulle ligging – eerder as by hierdie markte self. Die ooreenstemmende logika is dat, as kleinboere die gehalte en standvastigheid van hulle produksie verbeter, dan sal hulle feitlik verseker by moderne markte ingesluit word. Hierdie studie voer aan dat baie van die navorsing wat tot dusver onderneem is, in werklikheid onvolledig is, weens die feit dat twee belangrike aangeleenthede: die dominante supermark‐sakemodel, en die posisie van kleinboere in daardie lande met hoë vlakke van supermarkkonsentrasie buite rekening gelaat word. ʼn Ondersoek van die supermarkmodel dui daarop dat dit inherent vyandig is teenoor die meeste landbouprodusente. In teenstelling met die siening van gelyke vennote wat in die rigting van ʼn gemeenskaplike doelstelling saamwerk, is die moderne supermarkvoorraadketting daarop ingestel om soveel moontlik waarde uit ander deelnemers aan die ketting te trek. Kleiner produsente kry veral swaar as gevolg van hierdie strategie. Die struktuur van die Suid‐Afrikaanse voedselkleinhandelmark toon ooreenkomste met dié van geïndustrialiseerde lande eerder as met dié van ontwikkelende lande, en die grootste plaaslike supermarkte het waarskynlik voldoende markaandele om aansienlike markkrag uit te oefen. Ons moet dus verwag dat die posisie van Suid‐Afrikaanse kleinboere soortgelyk is aan dié van kleinboere in geïndustrialiseerde lande, wat toenemend uitgesluit word as gevolg van voorraadkettings wat deur moderne supermarkte gelei word. In die lig van hierdie analise skyn die meeste van die reaksies van die huidige beleidsinisiatiewe in ’n poging om markuitsluiting die hoof te bied, bedroewend ontoereikend. Verbetering van die gehalte van produksie en kleinboere se toegang tot vaardighede en bates is belangrik en nodig, maar is op sigself nie voldoende om toegang tot moderne voorraadkettings te waarborg nie. Onvoldoende aandag is tot dusver in navorsing gegee aan begrip van hoe markte self hindernisse op die pad na toegang word. Dit is ʼn kardinale leemte in plaaslike landelike ontwikkelingsbeleid: ʼn markstelsel wat groot boere eerder as kleinboere bevoordeel, het die potensiaal om landelike ongelykheid te vererger en beleid gemik op steun aan kleinboere te neutraliseer. Die regering moet die ontwikkeling van bemarkingsgeleenthede – in die besonder vir kleinboere – ernstiger opneem, en begryp dat laasgenoemde voor baie andersoortige uitdagings ten opsigte van marktoegang te staan kom as groot boere. Hulle moet die soort voedselnetwerke en bemarkingstrukture wat die grootste positiewe voordele vir kleinboere en die gemeenskappe waarin hulle woon sal hê, aanmoedig en ondersteun. Dit vereis ʼn ander siening van die werking van marknetwerke, en ʼn meer kritiese waardebepaling van die invloed wat dit op landelike bestaan het.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Paraffin, also called kerosene is used by small-scale soya bean farmers in some parts of Africa as a pest repellent. The repellent action is claimed to be effective against parasites during seed germination and development of the seedlings. Seeds are immersed in commercial paraffin for a few seconds and sown in the soil immediately. This method raised some questions about possible negative effects on the seed after the imbibition process but also on humans and animals consuming the plants and seeds. Experiments were designed to investigate whether this practice would have negative effects on seed germination and vigour of the resulting seedlings of seven selected crop species. A trial was also carried out to test the effectiveness of paraffin as a pest repellent on canola in a field situation. The collected data were analyzed using STATISTICA, software version 11. Wherever the experiments showed significant interaction or differences within main factors, the means were separated making use of Fischer’s LSD post-hoc analysis at p = 0.05. The first series of experiments was done in the laboratory. It was carried out on seeds of seven crop species: canola (Brassica napus L.), common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), ground nuts (Arachis hypogea L.), maize (Zea mays L.), soya bean (Glycine max L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). In the germination trial, seeds were subjected to a 7X5X4 factorial design treatment with factors Crop species (CS) (see above), Paraffin concentration (PC) (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of commercial paraffin diluted with distilled water) and Time of immersion (TOI) (1, 5, 10, and 30 minutes). Treatments were repeated four times. After immersion seeds were dried with water absorbent paper and immediately germinated in 90 mm diameter petri dishes containing two filter papers and 5 ml of distilled water. Germination tests included 10 seeds per replicate and were incubated at a constant temperature of 20°C under dark conditions in an incubator. Findings showed that canola, sunflower and soya bean are paraffin tolerant (>70 % germination), wheat and groundnuts are less tolerant (30% – 70% germination) and beans and maize are intolerant (< 30 % germination). The paraffin had a negative influence on the rate of germination but there were no statistically significant differences between the 25% to 100% paraffin concentrations. Measurements of the quantity of water and of paraffin absorbed were done after seeds of the seven crop species were immersed in 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% paraffin concentrations for 30 minutes. Beans absorbed more water at 100% water and more paraffin at 25% paraffin than the other crop species. The paraffin uptake decreased with the increase of paraffin concentration while water uptake increased with the increase in water percentage. In both cases canola had the lowest uptake. Differential uptake of water and paraffin did not explain the results of the germination test. Seeds of the seven crop species immersed in different paraffin concentrations (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) for thirty minutes were dried and then soaked in distilled water for 20 hours. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the liquid was determined by means of an EC meter after 20 hours of soaking. This was done to investigate whether paraffin treatment influenced leaking of electrolytes, which would indicate damage to the cell membranes in the seed. Results showed that sunflower leaked more electrolytes than any other seed, while wheat and maize had lower electrolyte leakage than the other species. This showed that the negative effect of paraffin on the germination of some crop species was unlikely to be due to membrane damage because sunflower seeds that leaked most electrolytes had a high germination percentage while the maize and wheat seeds that leaked little electrolytes, had poor germination after paraffin treatments. The second experiment was conducted in a glasshouse. Seeds of the seven crop species were subjected to the same PC and TOI treatments as described in the germination experiment above but instead of being placed in an incubator to germinate, they were planted in 8cm x 8 cm plastic pots (10 seeds in each) in coarse sand in a glasshouse that was running at approximately 20ºC. The establishment of the seedlings was monitored daily in the glasshouse. The final percentage of establishment was calculated. Three weeks after planting, the seedlings were thinned to one plant per pot. The mean root and stem lengths as well as dry mass of the seedlings was recorded when the seedlings were thinned. The one plant per pot that was retained was harvested six weeks after establishment. Root and stem length and dry mass were determined. Establishment percentage and tolerance indices were calculated. Maize and beans showed the lowest establishment percentages and sunflower scored the highest establishment percentage after treatment with paraffin. The root and stem lengths of the crops were generally unaffected by paraffin treatments. In terms of dry mass paraffin had a significant negative effect on groundnut at three weeks but at six weeks no effect of paraffin on any of the vegetative growth parameters could be observed. The third experiment was run in the microscope laboratory. A test using a confocal and fluorescence microscope was carried out to determine if residues of paraffin could be found in germinating soya bean seeds and seedlings. Specimens collected from the germinating soya bean seed and seedlings were mounted on the fluorescent microscope and stained with a solution of 100 μg.ml-1 Nile Red and observed with LD Plan-Neofluar 60X/0.6. Results showed that paraffin did penetrate the soya bean seed and was translocated within the plant system (endodermis) as the plant grows. The concentrations of paraffin in the tissue were however quite low. The fourth experiment was run on the Langgewens Experimental Farm near Moorreesburg in the Western Cape Province. Forty blocks were spatially grouped into two separate groups. Twenty blocks received the five paraffin treatments replicated four times and the other twenty blocks received the five water treatments also replicated four times. Within each group the treatments were allocated randomly to the plots. The experimental design was a 2X5 Factorial experiment with factors Treatment liquid (distilled water and paraffin) and Time of immersion (0, 1, 5, 10 and 30 minutes) replicated four times. No pesticides were applied to the canola crop. Stand density, leaf area and dry mass were recorded at the first harvest at 12 weeks, and then dry mass was determined at 21weeks. Final yield was determined after 27 weeks when the plots were harvested by means of a combine plot harvester. The stand density, leaf area and dry mass were significantly increased by paraffin treatments at the time of the first harvest. After 21 weeks paraffin treatment had no significant effect on the dry mass production of the canola and the same was true of the final seed yield. . Even though there was no serious attack by pests, the little feeding damage that occurred in the water treated plots and not in the paraffin treated plots, indicate that paraffin may have a repellent effect. Paraffin had no negative effects whatsoever on the growth and yield of canola in this experiment. This study indicates that different crops react differently to seed treatment with paraffin. The results of the fourth experiment indicate that paraffin might be used as pest repellent on certain selected crops but more research is needed on the subject. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Paraffien, ook genoem keroseen, word deur kleinskaalse boere in sekere dele van Afrika gebruik as ‘n pesafweermiddel. Dit word beweer dat die afweeraksie suksesvol is teen parasiete tydens saadontkieming en vroeë saailinggroei. Saad word in kommersiële paraffien gedoop vir ‘n paar sekondes en dan onmiddelik daarna geplant. Die metode skep vrae oor die moontlike negatiewe gevolge op die saad na die imbiberingsproses maar ook op mense en diere wat die plante en sade benut. Eksperimente is beplan om vas te stel of die praktyk negatiewe gevolge op die saadontkieming en groeikragtigheid van die daaropvolgende saailinge van sewe geselekteerde gewasspesies sal hê. ‘n Eksperiment is ook uitgevoer om die effektiwiteit van paraffien as pesafweermiddel op kanola in ‘n veldsituasie te toets. Die data wat ingesamel is is ontleed deur gebruik te maak van STATISTICA, sagteware, uitgawe 11. Waar betekenisvolle interaksies of verskille binne hooffaktore voorgekom het, is die gemiddeldes geskei deur middel van Fischer se LSD post-hoc ontleding by p = 0.05. Die eerste reeks eksperimente is uitgevoer in ‘n laboratorium. Dit is uitgevoer op sade van sewe gewasspesies naamlik . kanola (Brassica napus L.), gewone bone (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), grondbone (Arachis hypogea L.), mielies (Zea mays L.), sojabone (Glycine max L.), sonneblom (Helianthus annuus L.) en koring (Triticum aestivum L.). In die ontkiemingsproef is die sade onderwerp aan ‘n 7X5X4 ewekansige blokontwerp wat faktoriaal gerangskik is met faktore Gewasspesies (CS) (sien hierbo), Paraffien konsentrasie (PC) (0, 25, 50, 75 en 100% van kommersiële paraffien verdun met gedistilleerde water) en Tyd van indompeling (TOI) (1, 5, 10, en 30 minute). Behandelings is vier keer herhaal. Na indompeling is die sade met waterabsorberende papier gedroog en onmiddelik daarna in 90 mm deursneë petribakkies wat twee filtreerpapiere en 5 ml gedistilleerde water bevat het, ontkiem. Tien sade per petribakkie is gebruik en die petribakkies is geïnkubeer by ‘n konstante temperatuur van 20ºC in die donker in ‘n inkubasiekas. Resultate het getoon dat kanola, sonneblom en sojaboon bestand is teen paraffienbehandelings (>70% ontkieming), koring en grondboon is minder bestand (30-70% ontkieming) en mielies en gewone bone is sensitief vir paraffienbehandeling (<30% ontkieming). Die paraffien het oor die algemeen ‘n negatiewe effek op ontkiemingstempo gehad maar daar was geen statisties betekenisvolle verskille tussen die 25% en 100% paraffienbehandelings nie. Die hoeveelheid water en paraffien wat opgeneem is deur sade van die sewe gewasspesies nadat dit in paraffienkonsentrasies van 0, 25, 50, 75 en 100% ingedompel is vir 30 minute, is bepaal. Gewone bone het meer water by die 100% water behandeling en meer paraffien by die 25% paraffien behandeling opgeneem as die ander spesies. Die paraffienopname het afgeneem met toename in paraffienkonsentrasie terwyl wateropname toegeneem het met toenemende waterkonsentrasies. Beide in geval van wateropname en paraffienopname het kanola die minste water opgeneem. Differensiële opname van water en paraffien het nie die resultate van die ontkiemingstoets verklaar nie. Sade van die sewe gewasspesies is in verskillende paraffienkonsentrasies (0, 25, 50, 75 en 100%) gedompel vir 30 minute, gedroog en daarna in gedistilleerde water geweek vir 20 uur. Aan die einde van die 20 uur wekingsperiode is die elektriese konduktiwiteit (EC) van die wekingsvloeistof bepaal deur middel van ‘n EC meter. Dit is gedoen om vas te stel of paraffienbehandeling die uitlek van elektroliete vanuit die saad, wat ‘n aanduiding van beskadigde selmembrane van die saad kan wees, beïnvloed. Resultate het aangedui dat sonneblom die meeste elektroliete vrygestel het en koring en mielies die minste. Dit dui aan dat die negatiewe invloed van paraffien op sommige gewasspesies waarskynlik nie deur membraanbeskadiging veroorsaak is nie omdat sonneblom, wat die meeste elektroliete vrygestel het, die hoogste ontkiemingspersentasie na behandeling met praffien gehad het terwyl mielies en koring, wat die minste elektroliete vrygestel het, baie swak ontkieming gehad het na paraffienbehandeling. Die tweede eksperiment is in ‘n glashuis uitgevoer. Sade van die sewe gewasspesies is onderwerp aan dieselfde paraffienkonsentrasies en tye van indompeling as in die ontkiemingseksperiment hierbo maar in plaas van om die sade in ‘n inkubasiekas te ontkiem, is dit in 8 cm x 8 cm plastiekpotte wat gevul is met growwe sand geplant (10 sade per pot) in ‘n glashuis wat by ‘n konstante temperatuur van ongeveer 20ºC geloop het. Die vestiging van die saailinge in die glashuis is daagliks gemonitor en die finale persentasie van vestiging is bereken. Drie weke na plant is die saailinge uitgedun sodat een per pot oorgebly het. Die uitgedunde saailinge se gemiddelde wortel- en stamlengtes is bepaal asook die gemiddelde droëmassas. Die een plant wat per pot oorgebly het is na ses weke ge-oes en weer is wortel- en stamlengtes bepaal asook die droëmassas. Vestigingspersentasies en toleransie indekse is bereken. Mielies en gewone bone het die laagste vestigingspersentasies getoon en sonneblom die hoogste nadat die gewasse met paraffien behandel is. Die wortel- en stamlengtes van die gewasse was oor die algemeen nie deur paraffienbehandelings beïnvloed nie. In terme van droëmassa het paraffien ‘n negatiewe effek op grondbone gehad drie weke na plant maar na ses weke kon geen invloed van paraffienbehandelings op enige van die vegetatiewe groeiparameters waargeneem word nie. Die derde eksperiment is in ‘n mikroskooplaboratorium uitgevoer. ‘n Konfokale en fluoreserende mikroskoop is gebruik om te bepaal of oorblyfsels van paraffien gevind kan word in ontkiemende sojaboonsade en saailinge. Monsters wat geneem is van die ontkiemende sojaboonsade saailinge is gemonteer op die fluoreserende mikroskoop en gekleur met ‘n oplossing van 100 μg.ml-1 Nile Red oplossing en ge-evalueer met LD Plan-Neofluar 60X/0.6. Resultate het getoon dat paraffien wel die sojaboonsaad kon infiltreer en dat dit ook in die saailinge se endodermis vervoer kon word en opspoorbaar was. Die konsentrasies van paraffien in die weefsel was egter laag. Die vierde eksperiment is uitgevoer op die Langgewens Proefplaas naby Moorreesburg in die Wes-Kaap Provinsie. Veertig blokke is ruimtelik in twee groepe van twintig elk grangskik. Twintig blokke het die vyf paraffienbehandelings ontvang en twintig die vyf gedistilleerde waterbehandelings. Die behandelings is vier keer herhaal. Binne elke blok is die behandelings ewekansig toegeken aan persele. Die proefontwerp was ‘n 2X5 ewekansige geneste blokontwerp (split plot) wat faktoriaal gerangskik is met faktore Behandelingsvloeistof (gedistilleerde water en paraffien) en indompelingstyd (0, 1, 5, 10 and 30 minute). Geen insekdoders is op die kanola toegedien nie. Plantdigtheid, blaaroppervlakte en droëmassa is bepaal tydens die eerste monsterneming 12 weke na plant en daarna is slegs droëmassa bepaal na 21 weke. Na 27 weke is finale oesopbrengs bepaal deur die persele met ‘n perseelstroper te stroop. Plantdigtheid, blaaroppervlakte en droëmassa is betekenisvol verhoog deur paraffienbehandelings na 12 weke. Na 21 weke het die paraffienbehandelings egter geen betekenisvolle invloed op die droëmassa van die plante gehad nie en daar was ook nie verskille ten opsigte van finale oesopbrengs nie. Alhoewel daar nie ernstige insekskade waargeneem is nie, was dit tog duidelik dat die bietjie vreetskade wat in die waterbehandelings voorgekom het, nie in die paraffienbehandelings voorgekom het nie. Dit dui aan dat die paraffien moontlik ‘n afwerende invloed gehad het. Paraffien het geen negatiewe invloed enigsins gehad op die groei en produksie van kanola in hierdie eksperiment nie. Hierdie studie dui aan dat verskillende gewasse verskillend reageer op saadbehandeling met paraffien. Die resultate van die vierde eksperiment dui aan dat paraffien moontlik as ‘n pesafweermiddel op sekere geselekteerde gewasse gebruik kan word maar meer navorsing word benodig op die onderwerp.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The availability of water for irrigation purposes is becoming a serious concern for smallholder famers in the former homeland areas of South Africa. Not only because of global weather change and the occurrence of more erratic weather events, but also due to competition for fresh water between the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors (Hamdy et al., 2003). Food production increases in smallholder agriculture is seen as a possible solution to the food security challenges in the rural areas of the Limpopo Province (Altman et al., 2009). Smallholder farmers in Giyani mostly use traditional furrow irrigation systems and their farm crop productivity remains very low, compared to commercial farms in the same area. The objective of this study is to utilize and test various innovation technologies aimed at increasing Water Productivity (WP) in order to facilitate better irrigation management of the available water resources. The study was conducted on two farms, Zava Cooperative Garden and Mzilela Cooperative Garden, in the rural areas of Giyani over a two year period from 2012-2013. This study seeks to achieve the objective in three distinct ways. Firstly, the use of NIR technology is used to evaluate the prediction ability of soil chemical parameters for fertilizer requirement calculations. Secondly, WP trials were conducted on smallholder tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) production for three consecutive seasons, evaluating their current tomato crop production systems and also testing new innovations for WP increases. Thirdly, applying the MonQI methodology, inputs and outputs of all crop production sites were done to monitor the cropping systems throughout the period of the research. The results from this study indicate the importance of applying new innovations amongst smallholder production systems. Important findings from the NIR technologies indicated that this innovation can improve soil nutrient management in a more affordable, user friendly manner. The results showed that good prediction models were obtained for pH (KCl), electrical conductivity (EC), P, K, Mg, Na and CEC, with R2 and RPD values larger than 0.60 and 1.4 respectively. The prediction of exchangeable Ca was less successful with a R2 value of 0.43. Results from the WP trials suggest that drip irrigation performed better than furrow irrigation in terms of yield and WP. Yield and WP were very low for all treatments, being below 32 t/ha and 5.2 kg/m-3 respectively. Improved management practices, such as soil nutrient management and mulching were introduced in the 2nd and 3rd seasons of tomato trials in order to increase WP at field level at Mzilela farm. Results showed tomato yield increased from an average of 26.5 t/ha to 120.9 t/ha and WP increases from 4.61kg/m-3 to 17.69 kg/m-3. Deep drainage of water out of the rootzone decreased with better irrigation management. The results from the monitoring of inputs and output of their cropping systems revealed that smallholder farmers, using traditional farming practices, yielded very low and mostly below 5 t/ha for all crops. Some crops were totally lost due to hail and heat-waves. NPK balances for conventional cropping by the smallholder farmers at Mzilela was in the range of 0 to -70 kg/ha. The tomato production fertilized treatment of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd WP trials, showed positive nutrient balance results for P and K in the range of 80 to 140 kg/ha. N balances were mostly negative for all plots. NFI was R2768 and R4740 for season 1 and 3 respectively, while the 2nd season results showed a loss of - R5176. With the improved yield from the WP trial sites, and the fruits being sold to the Spar, the NFI increased to R42486 in the final season. The study concludes that great improvements in yield, WP and NFI are attainable and sustainable amongst smallholder farmers in the Giyani area. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die beskikbaarheid van water hulpbronne vir besproeiings doeleindes onder kleinskaalse boere in die voormalige tuislande is besig om ernstige bekommernisse te wek. Nie net as gevolg van globale weer veranderinge en meer gereelde ekstreme weer toestande nie, maar ook as gevolg van die kompetisie tussen die landbou, industriële en huishoudelike sektore vir water gebruike (Hamdy et al., 2003). Verhoogde voedsel produksie onder die kleinskaalse landbou sektor word gesien as moontlike oplossing vir die voedsel sekuriteit uitdagings in die platteland areas van die Limpopo Provinsie in Suid-Afrika (Altman et al., 2009). Kleinskaalse boere in Giyani gebruik meestal tradisionele voor-besproeiings stelsels en hul produktiwiteit bly steeds baie laag wanneer dit met kommersiële boerderye vergelyk word. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie is om Water Produktiwiteit (WP) te bestudeer en verskeie innovasie tegnologieë te toets om beter besproeiing bestuur van kosbare water bronne te fasiliteer. Die studie was uitgevoer op twee plase, naamlik Zava Koöperatiewe Tuin en Mzilela Koöperatiewe Tuin, wat in die plattelandse areas van Giyani geleë is en die studie is gedoen oor ‘n periode van twee jaar vanaf 2012 tot 2013. Om hierdie doelwit te bereik was die navorsing in drie eenhede uitgevoer. Eerstens sal Naby-Infra Rooi (NIR) tegnologie gebruik word om die voorspelling vermoë van grond chemiese eienskappe te toets vir meer effektiewe grond voedingstof bestuur deur kleinboere. Tweedens sal WP proewe uitgevoer word op kleinskaalse tamatie (Solanum lycopersicum) produksie. Die huidige tamatie gewasproduksie stelsels was getoets om die WP statusse te evalueer van hul tradisionele bestuurs praktyke van beide drip- en voorbesproeiings stelsels. Laastens, is insette en uitsette van die kleinboere se produksie stelsels met die MonQI metodologie bestudeer om die huidige produksie sisteme te evalueer, sowel as die WP proef persele, deur opbrengs, grond voedingstof balanse en netto plaas inkomste (NPI) te moniteer en te bereken vir 4 half jaar seisoene gedurende die navorsings periode. Die resultate van die navorsing voer aan dat die gebruik van innovasie tegnologieë onder kleinskaalse boerderystelsels ontsettend belangrik is vir verbeterde produksie. Hoofbevindings van die NIR tegnologie dui dat meer doeltreffende grond voedingstof bestuur moontlik is en wat goedkoper en meer gebruikersvriendelik is vir kleinboere. Hierdie tegniek het goeie voorspelbaarheid-modelle getoon vir pH (KCl), Elektriese Geleiding (EG), P, K, Mg, Na en katioon uitruilings kapasiteit (KUK) met R2 en RPD waardes hoër as 0.60 en 1.4 onderskeidelik. Die voorspelbaarheid van Ca was minder suksesvol met ‘n R2 waarde van 0.43. Die resultate van die WP toetse wys dat drip besproeiing beter as voorbesproeiing presteer het in terme van opbrengs en WP. Opbrengs en WP was baie laag vir alle behandelings van seisoen 1, met waardes laer as 32 t/ha en 5.2 kg/m-3 onderskeidelik. Verbeterde bestuurspraktyke, soos grond voedingstof bestuur asook die gebruik van ‘n deklaag, was in die 2de en 3rde seisoen toegepas om opbrengs en WP te verhoog op plaasskaal op Mziela plaas. Resultate het gewys dat opbrengs verhoog het van ‘n gemiddelde van 26.5 t/ha tot 120.9 t/ha en WP verhoging van 4.61 kg/m-3 tot 17.69 kg/m-3. In terme van die insette en uitsette van die produksie sisteme het opbrengste van alle gewasse, wat nog van tradisionele metodes gebruik, laer as 5 t/ha getoon. Soms van die totale oeste verloor deur hael of hittegolwe. Die NPK balanse vir die gewasverbouing met konvensionele kleinboer metodes was in die orde van 0 tot -70 kg/ha. Die kunsmis behandelings van die tamatie proewe van die 1ste, 2de en 3rde WP seisoene het positiewe balanse getoon vir P en K in die orde van 80 tot 140 kg/ha. Die N balanse was meestal negatief vir alle verbouings persele. Die NPI was R2768 en R4740 vir seisoen 1 en 3 onderskeidelik, terwyl die 2de seisoen verlies van -R5176 getoon het. Die verbeteringe in opbrengs met die WP proewe en met die verkoop van die tamaties aan die Spar was die NPI vir die 4de seisoen R42486. Die studie sluit dat daar groot moontlikehede is vir verhoging in opbrengs, WP en NPI onder kleinboere in die Giyani area.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis uses dairy farming in colonial Zimbabwe/Southern Rhodesia as a lens to explore the intersection of economic, social and environmental factors in colonial agriculture from the 1890s until 1951, when a new regulatory framework was introduced for the industry. It examines the complex and fluid interactions between the colonial state and farmers (both white and black), and the manner in which these interactions shaped and reshaped policy within the context of the local political economy and the changing global economic conditions. It examines the competing interests of the colonial state and farmers, and how these tensions played out in the formulation and implementation of dairy development policy over time. This thesis demonstrates that these contestations profoundly affected the trajectory of an industry that started as a mere side-line to the beef industry until it had become a central industry in Southern Rhodesia’s agricultural economy by the late 1940s. Thus, besides filling a historiographical gap in existing studies of Southern Rhodesia’s agricultural economy, the thesis engages in broader historiographical conversations about settler colonial agricultural policy and the role of the state and farmers in commercial agriculture. Given the fractured nature of colonial administration in Southern Rhodesia, this study also discusses conflicts among government officials. It demonstrates how these differences affected policy formulation and implementation, especially regarding African commercial dairy production. This thesis also explores the impact of a segregationist agricultural policy, particularly focusing on prejudices about the “African body” and hygiene. It shows how this shaped the character of both African and white production trends. It demonstrates that Africans were unevenly affected by settler policy, as some indigenous people continued to compete with white farmers at a time when existing regulations were intended to exclude them from the colonial dairy industry. It argues that although dairy farming had grown to be a strong white-dominated industry by 1951, the history of dairy farming during the period under review was characterised by contestations between the state and both white and African farmers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis gebruik suiwelboerdery in koloniale Zimbabwe/Suid-Rhodesie as ’n lens om die ekonomiese, sosiale en omgewingsgerigte kruispunte in koloniale landbou van omstreeks 1890 t 1951 toe ‘n nuwe regulatoriese raamwerk vir suiwelboerdery ingestel is te, ondersoek. Die komplekse en vloeibare interaksies tussen die koloniale staat en boere (wit sowel as swart) en die wyse waarop hierdie interaksies beleid binne die konteks van die plaaslike politieke ekonomie en die globale ekonomiese omstandighede gevorm en hervorm het, word ondersoek. Hierbenewens word gelet op die spanninge tussen die belange van die koloniale staat en die boere (wit sowel as swart) en hoe hierdie spanning oor tyd in die formulering en implementering van suiwelbeleid gemanifested het. Hierdie tesis demonstreer dat di spanninge en stryd ’n diepgaande uitwerking gehad het op ’n bedryf wat aanvanklik as ondergeskik tot die vleisbedryf begin het, naar teen die leat as ‘n sentrale veertigerjere bedryf in die Rhodesiëse landelike ekonomie uitgekristalliseer het. Benewens die feit dat die proefakrif ’n historiografiese leemte in bestaande koloniale Zimbabwe aangespreek, vorm dit ook deel van ’n breër historiografiese diskoers ten opsigte van setlaar koloniale landbou in Zimbabwe en die rol van die staat en boere in kommersiële landbou. Vanweё die gefragmenteerde aard van koloniale administrasie in Suid-Rhodesië, fokus die tesis ook op die konflikte tussen regeringsamptenare en hoe hierdie geskille veral beleidsformulering en implementering ten opsigte van swart kommersiële suiwelboerdery beïnvloed het. Vervolgens word die uitwerking van ’n landboubeleid geliasear of segragasi onder die loep geneem met spesiale verwysing na die geskiktheid van swartmense vir kommersiële suiwelboerdery en hoe dit die aard en karakter van beide swart sowel as wit produksie tendense beïnvloed het. Daar word aangedui dat swartmense nie eenvormig deur setlaarsbeleid geraak is nie aangesien van hulle met wit boere meegeding het op ’n stadium toe die heersende regulasies daerop gemik was oin baie van hulle uit die koloniale suiwelbedryfwit te slint. Die sentrale argument is dat hoewel suiwelboerdery sterk wit gedomineerd was teen 1951, die geskiedenis van die bedryf gedurende die tydperk onder bespreking gekenmerk is deur stryd en konflite tussen die staat en wit sowel as swart boere.