Tang Chi Wai. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 104-121) and index. / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / 摘要 --- p.iii / Acknowledgements --- p.v / Table of Contents --- p.vii / List of Tables --- p.x / List of Figures --- p.xi / List of Plates --- p.xii / Chapter Chapter One --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- Background --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Conceptual Framework --- p.3 / Chapter 1.3 --- Objectives and Significance --- p.5 / Chapter 1.4 --- Structure of the Thesis --- p.7 / Chapter Chapter Two --- Literature Review / Chapter 2.1 --- Impacts of Soil Erosion on Agriculture --- p.8 / Chapter 2.2 --- Farmland Shortage Problems in the Reservoir Region --- p.10 / Chapter 2.3 --- Terracing Systems in China --- p.11 / Chapter 2.4 --- Contour Hedgerows --- p.13 / Chapter 2.5 --- Sustainable Agriculture and its Development in China --- p.18 / Chapter Chapter Three --- Study Area / Chapter 3.1 --- The Three Gorges Reservoir Region --- p.22 / Chapter 3.2 --- Geographical Settings of Zigui County --- p.23 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Geographical and Administrative Location --- p.23 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Geology and Geomorphology --- p.24 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Soils --- p.25 / Chapter 3.2.4 --- Climate --- p.25 / Chapter 3.2.5 --- Hydrology --- p.26 / Chapter 3.3 --- Socioeconomic Conditions of Zigui County --- p.26 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Demography --- p.26 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Educational Attainments --- p.27 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Economic and Social Development --- p.27 / Chapter 3.4 --- Environmental Problems in Zigui and the Reservoir Region --- p.28 / Chapter Chapter Four --- Cost-benefit Analysis of Contour Hedgerows / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.30 / Chapter 4.2 --- Methodology --- p.32 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Trial Plot Design --- p.32 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Cost-benefit Analysis --- p.35 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Identification and Valuation of Costs --- p.35 / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Identification and Valuation of Benefits --- p.37 / Chapter 4.2.5 --- Discount Rate --- p.37 / Chapter 4.2.6 --- Time Horizon --- p.37 / Chapter 4.2.7 --- Cost-benefit Criterion --- p.38 / Chapter 4.3 --- Results and Discussion --- p.38 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Investment Costs and Operating Costs --- p.38 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Replacement Costs --- p.39 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Benefits --- p.42 / Chapter 4.3.4 --- Net Present Values (NPVs) --- p.44 / Chapter 4.3.5 --- Sensitivity Analysis --- p.47 / Chapter 4.4 --- Conclusion --- p.48 / Chapter Chapter Five --- A Questionnaire Survey of the Comparative Performance of Various Farming Systems / Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.50 / Chapter 5.2 --- Methodology --- p.52 / Chapter 5.2.1. --- Sampling Method --- p.52 / Chapter 5.2.2. --- Questionnaire --- p.52 / Chapter 5.2.3. --- Analytical Technique --- p.53 / Chapter 5.3 --- Results and Discussion --- p.54 / Chapter 5.3.1. --- Background of Households and Farming Systems --- p.54 / Chapter 5.3.2. --- Net Returns --- p.57 / Chapter 5.3.3. --- Inputs of Inorganic Fertilizers and Organic Manure --- p.61 / Chapter 5.3.4. --- Labour Inputs --- p.64 / Chapter 5.3.5. --- Characteristics of Hedgerow Management --- p.65 / Chapter 5.4 --- Conclusion --- p.66 / Chapter Chapter Six --- An Interview Study of the Perception of Contour Hedgerows / Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction --- p.68 / Chapter 6.2 --- Methodology --- p.70 / Chapter 6.3 --- Results and Discussion --- p.72 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Familiarity with Hedgerows --- p.72 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Hedgerow Acceptance in Usage --- p.74 / Chapter 6.3.3 --- Factors of Hedgerow Implementation --- p.79 / Chapter 6.3.4 --- Variation of Agricultural Inputs and Outputs --- p.83 / Chapter 6.3.5 --- Values of Indigenous Knowledge --- p.86 / Chapter 6.3.6 --- Implications for Hedgerow Extension --- p.88 / Chapter 6.4 --- Conclusion --- p.90 / Chapter Chapter Seven --- Conclusion / Chapter 7.1 --- Summary of Findings --- p.92 / Chapter 7.2 --- Synthesis of the Study --- p.95 / Chapter 7.3 --- Limitations of the Study --- p.100 / Chapter 7.4 --- Suggestions for Further Studies --- p.101 / Bibliography --- p.104 / Appendix I: Structured Questionnaire --- p.122 / Appendix II: Interview Guide for Hedgerow Users --- p.131 / Appendix III: Interview Guide for Non-hedgerow Users --- p.134 / Appendix IV: Interview Guide for Government Officials --- p.137 / Appendix V: Index --- p.140 / "Appendix VI: Publication-Cost-benefit Analysis of Contour Hedgerow in the Three Gorges Region (Published in ´ب´بResources Science´ح，Vol26 Supplement,pp. 132-136)" --- p.145

Precision farming integrates satellite coordination and information communication technologies into farming practices to deliver self-driving and auto-regulating machinery and equipment to farmers, who can afford to invest, right across the globe. It is often sold on the basis that it can help clean up or ‘ecologically modernise’ conventional, industrial agriculture. It should also increase production rates in industrial agriculture to help to ‘feed the world’ as well as being cost effective in ways that could make farmers more money – miracle-grow formula and win-win technology. There are critical concerns that precision farming facilitates a continuing trend of transnational firms appropriating control over agricultural industries. Many neo-Marxist or neo-Weberian critics contend that any ‘green’ benefits fall secondary to the more dominant social and economic trend of ongoing capital accumulation, increasing rationalisation and industrial progress that has been deemed detrimental to natural environments and human populations. These social and economic pressures are actually the real drivers in change. Rather than greening industrial agriculture, precision farming is another way of masking over and profiting from the risks caused by ongoing capitalist accumulation and industrial agriculture. The other set of concerns are to do with human culture and labour. Farming is the grass roots of modern civilisation and dependent upon human labour, knowledge and cultural methods. With the introduction of data over knowledge, and auto-steering tractors over human labour and skills, what kinds of impacts will this have on farm families, rural cultures within countryside landscapes in Britain or other countries where precision farming is being adopted? As a farmer’s son, I was concerned about the impact the computerisation of agriculture will have on family farms, nature and rural communities. I spent four years interviewing and working with a cooperative group of Duchy of Cornwall farmers in the West Country of England. I wanted to know why they were using these new technologies and the kinds of benefits, impacts or outcomes that they experienced following adoption. The results tend to confirm critics’ concerns, unfortunately. Precision farming has much more to do with the organising of agricultural production. The restructuring of farming by way of precision farming greater empowers transnational agribusinesses and Agri-Food supply chains, rather than protecting the environment, feeding hungry people or making family farming more sustainable. I conclude my research by suggesting that it is not technology, or agricultural technologies such as precision farming that will deliver these end goals in and of them selves. There could be room to improve precision farming systems if they are coupled with well-managed policy designs and agri-environmental schemes.

Diploma thesis on the topic of possibilities of marketing orientation on the organic market deals with organic farming and organic food. The first part is to get familiar with this issue. There are characterized differences between organic and conventional farming, the advantages and disadvantages of organic farming, animal and plant specifications of production, conditions that must be met if the transition from conventional to organic farming, the follow-up compliance with the conditions laid down by law. Another section is devoted to organic food and their characterization, organic certification and marketing. The practical part includes its own investigation with an awareness of consumers about organic food. The conclusion gives the specifics of organic farming and organic food, and based on the analysis and possible recommendations on marketing orientation.

Bakgrund: Lantbruket står inför stora framtida utmaningar som t.ex. stora befolkningsökningar och minskade jordbruksarealer. Ett förslag för att lösa en del av problemet och öka effektiviteten inom lantbruket är att implementera och använda olika digitala tjänster och produkter. Ett av koncepten för den digitala tekniken som har lyfts fram av bland annat EU är Smart farming. Konceptet är brett och innefattar många olika tekniska lösningar, varav en av dessa är kameraövervakning av boskapsdjur. Frågeställning: Har de lantbrukare som använder kameraövervakning av boskapsdjur upplevt en förändring av sin livskvalitet och har användningen av tekniken medfört några ekonomiska effekter? Metod: Ett kvalitativt angreppssätt valdes där sex lantbrukare intervjuades i semistrukturerade intervjuer. Resultat: De medverkande lantbrukarna var överlag positiva till kameraövervakningssystemen och flera av lantbrukarna anser att tekniken möjliggjort att de kunnat spara tid och att djur i viss utsträckning kunnat räddats. Flera av lantbrukarna menar också att användandet av kameraövervakningssystemen lett till positiva effekter gällande deras livskvalitet, där det framför allt var möjligheten att kunna spendera mer tid med familj och ökad flexibilitet som var bidragande. Slutsatser: Undersökningens resultat tyder på att kameraövervakningssystemen kan spara tid och pengar för lantbrukarna och att den upplevda livskvaliteten förbättras. Den grupp respondenter i undersökningen som upplevde störst effekter av kameraövervakningen var mindre lantbruk. Kameraövervakningen användes till flera olika ändamål, t.ex. brottsförebyggande, kalvning, personalsäkerhet, övervakning av foderbord, lösdrift samt gård och ägor.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Agriculture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / The study was designed to establish the impact of irrigation schemes on job creation and also from the jobs created to differentiate permanent from temporary jobs. The focus of the study was on three smallholder irrigation schemes (Mabunda, Mariveni and Seloane, the irrigation schemes are located in Greater Giyani, Greater Tzaneen and Ba- Phalaborwa municipalities respectively). For the purpose of the study, Mabunda will be addressed as scheme 1, Mariveni as Scheme 2 and Seloane will be addressed as Scheme 3.The main crops cultivated in the three irrigation schemes are citrus, coupled with vegetables to generate funds when citrus is out of season. The study employed a case study approach and used both qualitative and quantitative methods to collect data. The study was implemented in two phases: the first phase focused on irrigation scheme participants, while the second phase focused on the community structures (livestock committee, youth, water committee and tribal council) that have been affected by the establishment of the irrigation schemes. Data was collected from the irrigation schemes beneficiaries and community structures by means of a structured questionnaire. No random selection method was used in the selection of irrigation scheme beneficiaries. This was influenced by the small number of beneficiaries in the three schemes (56).It was only the community structures that were randomly selected. One hundred and five (105) people were interviewed representing different structures in all three villages. Out of this figure thirty five(35) people were interviewed per village. Data collected was organized into themes for analysis. Data was analyzed manually, where the coded questionnaires were recorded into a spread sheet. The process of analysis was carried out by using qualitative description and descriptive statistics. Data was manually analysed and the output was discussed using tabulation and cross-tabulation of variables with percentages in descriptive statistics. From the spread sheet data was summarized manually. For the period 2006 to 2009, the irrigation schemes anticipated to create 42 permanent job opportunities with the exception of 2006 where the projected jobs were 32. For the same period, the following temporary job opportunities were anticipated: 121 in 2006,236 in 2008, 240 in 2010, 234 in 2012,233 in 2014 and 232 in 2016. The irrigation schemes also anticipated to inject the monetary value into the community in the form of basic salaries. In 2006, R839,996.76 was injected into the community in the form of salaries, 2008 – R1,509,060.33, 2010 – R1,775,531.58,from 2012 – 2018. R2,045,130.36, R2,381,396.14 and R2,772,145.45 injected into the community respectively, while the divisional management team were expected to receive, R27,525, R36,800, R35,920, R43,857 and R54,118 in the form of performance bonuses, in 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2016 respectively. The actual permanent jobs created for the period 2005 to 2009 in Scheme 1, an average of 64.6 (the anticipated was 42), while the actual temporary jobs created averaged 395. Scheme 2, managed to create an average of 86 permanent jobs and 197 temporary jobs, while the anticipated was 42 and 240 respectively. In Scheme 3, averages of 74 permanent jobs were created while 55.4 temporary jobs were created. The irrigation schemes created more jobs than anticipated. This was influenced by the high rate of unemployment in the villages located next to the irrigation schemes and the irrigation schemes as the only job providers closer to the villages. Temporary workers are paid performance based salaries. For the period 2005 to 2009, they were paid as follows: in 2005, they were paid R0.35 per bag of oranges harvested. The actual salary earned per month was informed by the number of bags harvested for that particular month. The following years the salary was increased by five cent per bag. Permanent workers were paid an average salary of R2400.00 per month. The study recommended that the roads leading to the three irrigation schemes should be maintained to minimize fruit damage during transportation to the market. The schemes should also be financially assisted to acquire own farm equipment (tractors, trailers and trucks) and be trained on the maintenance of these equipment to reduce acquiring services from the private service providers. The three irrigation schemes use private transport to carry their produce to the market and they are charged for this service, hence, the acquisition of own transport is necessary.

Thesis (M.Sc (Agriculture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / Small-scale irrigation farming has been found to have potential to improve agricultural production of the small-scale farmers and thereby improving their livelihoods. The Government of South Africa through the RESIS programme embarked on a project to increase agricultural production through investment in new or existing small scale irrigation schemes. Contrary to expectations, most of the government supported irrigation schemes have failed to meet the expectations of both government and farmers. The objectives of this study was to determine the perceived reasons for the failure of the irrigation schemes and determine the association between socio-economic characteristic of farmers and the perceived reasons for these schemes. Farmers who participated in the scheme or had participated (in the case of failed/dysfunctional schemes) in the RESIS irrigation schemes were randomly sampled and interviewed. Multinomial regression analysis was used to determine the association between farmers’ socio-economic profiles and their perceptions on the reasons for the failure of the schemes. According to farmers’ ranking, economic, competition and socio-cultural factors were perceived as having a large influence on the success of the schemes. Climate/ecological and technological factors were cited as having lesser influence on the success of the schemes. Socio-economic characteristics (literacy level, age, education level) of farmers and number of beneficiaries in a scheme had influence on how farmers perceive the influence of economic, competition, socio-cultural, technological, climate and administrative/management factors.. The strategic partnership model was generally found to encourage dependency and thus discouraging the sense of ownership. The findings revealed the importance of considering the socio-economic circumstances of farmers in future planning of the irrigation schemes to enhance the success of these schemes. The findings may also have implications for other government supported projects that involve communities with diverse needs and socio-economic profiles.

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2007

Loss of native biological diversity is a world-wide problem of growing international concern. One of the main causes of native biodiversity loss is destruction and degradation of native habitat through land development for agriculture. The Waikato region is an example of the destruction and degradation of native habitat in association with the development and intensification of farming, including dairy farming. This thesis explores cultural reasons for the loss of native forest in the Waikato region, and reasons why fragments of native forest remain. The research involves a participant observation study of 'typical' dairy farm families for 9 months of the dairy year, in-depth interviews of dairy farmers who have protected a significant proportion of their land for conservation of native habitat, a questionnaire of dairy farmers, and an examination of dairy farm magazines and other literature to identify the values and attitudes that motivate dairy farmers in relation to land management and protection of native habitat. The title of the thesis suggests two elements that are important for understanding the loss and persistence of native forest in Waikato's farmed landscapes. Symbolic reason refers to the values, attitudes and perceptions of farmers that derive from socio-political and economic forces which encourage productivist practises that leave little opportunity for native forest to survive. Material agency refers to the local circumstances of particular farms and individual people which enable native forest to persist. The thesis argues that persistence of native forest depends on the idiosyncrasies of material circumstance in the face of relentless pressure to transform the production landscape for economic purposes. The thesis concludes with a suggestion that policies to assist survival of native habitat in farmed landscapes need to include ones that encourage the odds in favour of fortuitous circumstance. In the face of globalised economic pressures, policies for conservation of native biodiversity need to involve a 'portfolio' of measures that apply to individual landowners and the wider rural community by recognising, assisting and rewarding management for non-production values.

Farming systems in Bangladesh are characterised by a mixed culture of crop, livestock, poultry, fish and agro forestry sub systems of agricultural enterprise. Low productivity and inefficient resource use are the main constraints to farming in Bangladesh. It is necessary to improve the performance of all enterprises in existing farming systems which depends on the proper utilisation of the existing level of resources. The overall objective of this study was to evaluate the alternative farming systems in terms of income and gender participation. To achieve the objectives, a study was conducted in four villages of Kaliakair Upazilla in the Gazipur district of Bangladesh. Thirty sample farmers were selected randomly from four dominant farming systems.Gender roles in farming systems were assessed in consideration to time spent in agricultural activities.In addition, time spent in household activities was also calculated. The conclusion is that there is no one right choice of selecting farming systems. / Master of Science (Hons.)

This thesis is grounded in the introduction of participatory research, development and extension (RDE) to Australian agriculture. The emphasis on participatory processes emerged as the Transfer-of-Technology (ToT) model is no longer considered adequate to deal with complex farming systems and their diverse stakeholders (Packham 2003). However, RDE agencies are introducing participatory processes with a limited understanding of how they may work in Australia's developed agriculture sector (Vanclay 1994). Consequently, the initiation of three participatory Farming Systems RDE projects in Australia's northern grains region provides opportunity to explore and understand participatory approaches and their impact on participants. Three related themes are developed by exploring the nature of participants' diversity across these projects, the characteristics of participation in each project and the subsequent learning of participants: (i) that increased participation implicitly increases diversity in the conduct of RDE; (ii) that participatory RDE provides opportunities to integrate stakeholders' diverse experience and knowledge; and (iii) that participants' learning can improve current farming systems. Participatory action research was used to understand how participatory RDE should be enacted, and to involve project participants to help them also understand and improve their project processes and goals. The research utilised a range of qualitative and quantitative procedures including: participant and nonparticipant observation at project meetings and activities with farmers; focus groups and semi-structured interviews with project teams, their managers, and participating farmers; a team learning survey of team members; and custom-made questionnaires to quantify participants' perceptions of the projects, their processes, and impacts on learning and behaviour. These interventions identified participants' demographic, organisational and informational diversity. They also identified and elaborated their diverse aims, expectations and passions for participatory RDE, revealed individuals' preferred RDE methodologies and suggested their underlying worldviews. Indeed, ToT paradigms and positivist worldviews remained entrenched in most project staff and their managers. The teams consequently used participation to help farmers better understand technical issues, not build interdependent projects with integrated RDE processes. Farmers generally appreciated their increased participation and influence in RDE activities. While their initial consultative and functional participation did not extend to process decisions or project strategy, farmers valued the opportunity to work with the projects and influence the issues addressed. The projects consequently improved farming practices and management of issues that have long-eluded traditional RDE. For example, the widespread use of: (i) zero tillage and controlled traffic systems to control soil erosion; (ii) nitrogen fertilisers to match crop requirements; (iii) ley pastures to address soil fertility in grain and grazing systems; and (iv) new crops to diversifying grain systems away from monocultures. The projects provided farmers with opportunities for increased participation and learning over time. Functional participation developed in on-farm research that addressed issues identified with farmers, and action learning workshops provided proximal opportunities for farmers to understand existing information and use their own farm data in real decisions. In this way, the behaviourist learning of the ToT approach was supplemented by guided learning to integrate new meaning schemes with farmers' experiential knowledge. Some on-farm research and action learning activities extended to reflecting on their processes, and involved farmers in deciding the most appropriate RDE methodology and methods for subsequent activities. This opportunity to reflect on the values and assumptions of different approaches was critical in developing interactive participation and higher level learning for participants. Nevertheless, the initial participation in each project team failed to meet some team members' expectations. The expected task and process conflicts emerged, but small activity groups with shared values and RDE paradigms developed within each team. Team members' process conflict about the 'best' RDE methodologies for specific issues then developed into worldview conflicts about the relevance and rigour of these methodologies. Some smaller groups subsequently worked independently, with damaging relationship conflict developing from unresolved process issues between some individuals. Team members communicated, but their participation remained largely passive and consultative. Factors that shaped participation were identified, and a framework to support opportunities for stakeholders to plan, manage and evaluate RDE was developed. These helped increase participation in the projects. Participation within the projects' constituent activities subsequently fluxed from isolation to interactive participation. Individuals within activities now expected, and usually had, equality in content decisions (i.e. functional participation), which often extended to process decisions (i.e. interactive participation). Yet, the levels of participation between members of different activities varied across the projects. One project remained a series of parallel and relatively independent activities with passive and consultative participation. A second project had functional and interactive participation imposed for some activities, but otherwise used passive and consultative participation. The third project developed to provide functional and interactive participation in major project decisions. It then became apparent that the learning outcomes of each project varied. Individuals continued to learn from their participation in the projects, but the contributions of diverse sources and participation were major shapers of this learning. Participation within the less diverse activity groups produced mainly technical learning through participants' existing meaning schemes. Again, the level of participation between activities with diverse values, RDE paradigms, and worldviews, shaped the nature of learning. Passive and consultative participation produced mostly technical learning through existing meaning schemes. Yet, teams that embraced their diversity, and reflected on the assumptions of their different RDE methodologies, transformed their approach to learning. With high levels of diversity, the level of participation determined the level of learning. Essentially, participation became learning. This thesis confirms the potential of participatory RDE to improve farming practices. Consultation to identify priority issues, and functional participation to develop proximal opportunities for farmers to understand these issues and make their own decisions had a major impact on farming practices. Yet, participatory processes must rise above the prevailing ToT paradigms of RDE agencies to integrate participants' knowledge, and so achieve sustainable development in Australia. Three main process contributions are made to support this development. Firstly, the evaluation framework provides a challenge and structure to encourage the contributions of all participants at each stage of project activities. It provides a checklist for effective participation in Farming Systems RDE. Secondly, a typology of participation in Farming Systems RDE extends that proposed by Pretty (1995). It provides a catalyst and means to better understand and identify the most appropriate levels of participation in RDE projects. The associated checklist for assessing modes of participation allows monitoring of the participation developed in practice. Finally, the re-conceptualisation of a broader continuum of participation in Farming Systems RDE for developed agriculture is proposed. The subsequent development of the Doing successful on-farm research process is a culmination of the understandings developed in this thesis. It facilitates the development of interactive participation within the on-farm research process that is central to these projects. Recognising the technical focus of most current RDE agency staff, it guides their development of participatory on-farm research processes before reflecting on the appropriateness of different research methods to their research issues. The findings here cannot ensure the development of Australia's RDE beyond the ToT paradigm. However, this thesis provides important insights into the nature of diversity, participation, and learning in the Farming Systems projects, and a series of tools to support this development. Conceptually, it proposes that different kinds of participation will be shaped by participants' diversity from their prior experiences and their expectations that are in turn transformed through evidence of improved practice.