Umbilical flow velocity waveforms (FVW' s) can be measured non-invasively using Doppler ultrasound. Changes in the FVW's occur long before the warning signs from other conventional monitoring methods. Correct interpretation of the changes in the FVW has the potential of providing the clinician with an early warning of foetal distress. A number of indices have been described in the literature to characterise the FVW including the Pulsatility Index (PI), the Resistance Index (RI) and more recently, the High Resistance State Index (HRSI). Researchers have shown a dependence of the FVW, and thus the indices which describe it, on factors such as the placental resistance (Muijsers et al 1990a) blood pressure pulsatility (Mulders et al 1986), and the foetal heart rate (Downing et al 1991). In order to model the foetal circulation, the dimensions of the foetal vessels were required. These were taken from the literature when available, but had to be supplemented by measurements on post mortem specimens. This information, together with blood pressures and flow rates taken from the literature, was used to design electrical analogous models of the foetal arterial circulation (model 1 and model 2), which were implemented using PSpice, which is an electronic circuit simulator package. The Flow Velocity Waveforms (FVW's) simulated were stored and then analyzed using MATLAB, which is a mathematical package to calculate the waveform indices and both the blood pressure and percentage blood flow to the different anatomical regions of the foetus. Model 1 is a simple model of the umbilical placental unit only, which assumes a rectified sine wave with a D.C. offset as an input waveform while Model 2 is a distributed element model of the complete foetal arterial system, including a realistic representation of the foetal heart. AIM: Simulations of the FVW were used to examine the effects of placental obliteration (raised placental resistance), placental size, foetal heart rate (FHR), blood pressure pulsatility (BPPI), mean blood pressure (BP), and site of measurement of the FVW along the umbilical artery and thus on the waveform indices which are used to describe it (RI, PI and HRSI). RESULTS/ DISCUSSION: The investigations using models 1 and 2 showed that the indices were significantly dependent on the placental resistance, the size of the placenta and the type of placental obliteration. Model 1 was also used to investigate the effect of FHR variations on the indices under the original assumption that the input waveform to the umbilical/placental unit was a rectified sinusoid offset by a constant voltage (D.C.) (Thompson and Trudinger 1990). The result obtained, that is, the FHR does not affect the indices (in particular the PI) needed further investigation because the assumption for the input waveform is not true under all conditions. For this reason, the simulations were repeated using model 2, with the interesting result that there is a difference between short term FHR variations and long-term FHR variation. Short term FHR variations had a pronounced effect on the indices. The blood pressure pulsatility and the indices concerned varied by large amounts in this case, which indicated a link between the blood pressure pulsatility and all the indices. Long term FHR variations had an inconsistent but small effect on the blood pressure pulsatility and in turn had a small effect on the RI and PI. The mean blood pressure in these simulations decreased with increasing FHR which resulted in a pronounced increase in the HRSI which indicated the dependency of this index on the mean blood pressure rather than on the blood pressure pulsatility. It was found that the HRSI is a good index of placental resistance and may be particularly useful in evaluating high placental resistance in cases of absent flow during diastole, since, in these cases it is only slightly affected by the FHR. A value of greater than 34 percent is the recommended HRSI value to indicate severe foetal distress. The results also indicate that the FVW shape varies along the umbilical artery and is far more pulsatile at the aortic (proximal) end than the placental end. This is reflected in the indices which thus have worst case values at the placental end. It is thus recommended that, where possible, the indices are measured at the placental end of the umbilical artery.

Fosterövervakning är en komplex och kommunikationsavhängig verksamhet i barnmorskors dagliga arbete på förlossningskliniker. En svensk studie har visat att det brister i följsamhet till riktlinjer för fosterövervakningen. Det finns enligt min kunskap inga studier som, ur ett konstruktionistiskt perspektiv belyser kvaliteten i förlossningsklinikers dokument för riktlinjer och rutiner. Syftet med studien är att därför undersöka hur patientsäkerhet framställs i rutin-dokument för fosterövervakning. Två medelstora förlossningskliniker i Sverige har ställt sina rutindokument om fosterövervak-ning till förfogande. Metoden har diskursanalytisk ansats och en modell för textgranskning har använts. Analyser av de båda rutindokumenten har resulterat i synteser, som relaterats till patientsäkerhet i huvudsak. Resultatet visar att risker för hypoxiutveckling hos fostret under förlossningen eller risker an-gående tolkningsmomentet inte är tydligt beskrivna eller problematiserade. Detta trots att re-gistreringen vid fosterövervakning kan vara svårbedömd eftersom den ska tolkas och sättas in i ett större sammanhang. Tillstånd som ökar hypoxirisken beskrivs inte, det vill säga ett pro-cessperspektiv på CTG-användningen kan inte identifieras. Kommunikationsfrågor hanteras otydligt. Det ena rutindokumentet innehåller riskfaktorer som påbjuder kontinuerlig CTG, men risker i samband med värkstimulering har en oförtjänt undanskymd plats. Patientsäkerhet konstrueras och framställs sammanfattningsvis inte tillfredsställande i rutin-dokumenten. / Fetal monitoring is a complex procedure and depends on the quality of the communication in midwives daily work at maternity clinics. A Swedish study has shown that there is a lack of adherence to guidelines for fetal monitoring. There are, to my knowledge, no studies made from a constructionist perspective that highlight the quality of such guidelines. The aim of the study is to examine how patient safety is represented in the routine documents for fetal moni-toring. Two medium-sized obstetric clinics in Sweden have accepted to let their routine documents about fetal monitoring be available for assessment. A discourse analytic approach and a model for text analysis have been used as a method. Analysis of the two routine documents has resulted in the syntheses, mainly related to patient safety. The result shows that risks for developing fetal hypoxia during labor and risks concerning in-terpretation element is not clearly described or problematized. Despite the fact that the regis-tration of fetal monitoring, it can be difficult to assess, because it is interpreted and put in a larger context. Conditions that increase the risk of hypoxia are not described, that is, a process perspective on the CTG-use can not be identified. Communications are handled unclear. One routine document contains risk factors which dictate continuous CTG, but that risk related to stimulation of the contractions had a secluded spot. As a conclusion, in the routine documents patient safety is not satisfactory nor constructed or considered.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree in Masters of Technology in Nursing, Durban University of Technology, 2014. / Introduction High maternal, perinatal and under-five morbidity and mortality are some of the formidable development challenges in Africa. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that worldwide, as many as 1500 women die every day due to complications related to pregnancy or childbirth (WHO 2010). The partograph or partogram, an inexpensive tool, was designed by WHO to be used by midwives for decision-making during labour. Many studies conducted in and out of Africa reflect sub-optimal use of the partograph. Aim of the study The aim of the study was to describe the utilisation of the partograph by registered midwives working in the maternity sections of public hospitals in the uMgungundlovu District in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Methodology A quantitative descriptive cross-sectional study was used to describe the use of the partograph in the selected hospitals, and carried out in two phases. In phase one, 197 participants completed a questionnaire. In phase two, retrospective audits on 310 completed maternity records were done. The collected data was analysed using SPSS version 20 and presented in frequency tables, cross-tabulations and graphs. Results The results revealed that there were certain parameters that were given more focus when it came to correct and consistent recording, such as contractions (80.0%) and cervical dilatation (89%) whilst others were poorly done, such as the duration of labour (13.5%), pain relief (23.5%) and unrecorded partographs from the primary health care clinics and community health centres (80.8%).

A fim de investigar a associação entre alterações do tônus uterino e a ocorrência de anormalidades da freqüência cardíaca fetal (FCF) após analgesia obstétrica, em especial após o bloqueio combinado raqui-peridural, foi conduzido estudo prospectivo randomizado e encoberto, com setenta e sete parturientes que solicitaram analgesia regional durante o trabalho de parto. As pacientes do grupo estudo (41 casos) receberam duplo bloqueio com sufentanil e bupivacaína e as do grupo controle (36 casos) foram submetidas à peridural com as mesmas drogas. Monitorizou-se o tônus uterino por meio de cateter intra-amniótico de aferição da pressão intra-uterina e a freqüência cardíaca fetal durante 15 minutos antes e 30 minutos após a indução da analgesia. Pesquisaram-se os seguintes desfechos após a administração da analgesia: ocorrência de aumento do tônus uterino superior ou igual a 10mmHg em relação aos valores pré-analgesia e presença de desacelerações prolongadas da FCF ou bradicardia. Foram ainda quantificados os escores maternos de dor, a pressão arterial materna e o uso de ocitocina, antes e após o bloqueio. Observou-se associação significativa tanto do aumento de tônus uterino quanto das alterações da FCF com a analgesia combinada, nos primeiros 15 minutos após sua administração. O aumento de tônus foi encontrado em 17 de 41 casos no grupo estudo e em 6 de 36 pacientes nos controles (p=0,02). Alterações da FCF foram vistas em 11 dos 17 casos de aumento de tônus nas parturientes que receberam analgesia combinada, versus 1 de 6 no grupo peridural (p<0,001) A análise de regressão logística apontou o tipo de analgesia como fator independentemente associado ao aumento de tônus uterino, mesmo inserindo-se o uso de ocitocina como covariável. Também revelou o aumento de tônus como único fator independentemente associado ao desenvolvimento de anormalidades da FCF, mesmo com a hipotensão materna como covariável. Demonstrou-se ainda correlação entre o rápido declínio da dor com a técnica combinada e a probabilidade estimada de ocorrência simultânea de aumento do tônus e alterações da FCF. Os presentes achados reforçam a teoria de que o duplo bloqueio pode levar a aumento transitório de tônus uterino e culminar em anormalidades da FCF / In order to investigate the association between uterine tone elevation and fetal heart rate (FHR) abnormalities following labor analgesia - mainly with combined spinal-epidural (CSE) technique - a prospective double-blinded randomized study was conducted with seventy seven parturients who requested labor analgesia. Study group (41 cases) received CSE with sufentanil and bupivacaine and control group (36 cases) received epidural analgesia with the same drugs. Intra-uterine pressure was monitored with intra-amniotic pressure device and FHR with external transducer, both for at least 15 minutes before and 30 minutes after analgesia induction. The primary outcomes were the occurrence of an elevation of 10mmHg or more on uterine tone compared to the values before analgesia and the presence of prolonged fetal heart rate decelerations or fetal bradycardia. Maternal pain scores, blood pressure and use of oxytocin were also computed. A significant association was noticed between elevation of uterine tone and fetal heart rate abnormalities with combined spinal-epidural analgesia, at the first 15 minutes of administration. Uterine tone elevation was observed in 17 out of 41 CSE subjects and only 6 out of 36 controls (p=0.02). Fetal heart rate abnormalities were seen in 11 out of 17 cases that had hypertonus with combined analgesia and in only one of the 6 epidural patients (p<0.001). Logistic regression analysis revealed the mode of analgesia as the independent factor for the elevation of uterine tone, even with oxytocin use as a covariate. It also pointed out the uterine tone elevation as the only independent factor related to the development of fetal heart rate abnormalities, even with maternal hipotension as a covariate. A correlation was found between the fast onset pain relief provided by CSE analgesia and the estimated probability of uterine tone elevation and simultaneous fetal heart rate abnormalities. The present results strengthen the hypothesis that CSE analgesia can lead to a transient increase in uterine tone, leading to fetal bradycardia

A fim de investigar a associação entre alterações do tônus uterino e a ocorrência de anormalidades da freqüência cardíaca fetal (FCF) após analgesia obstétrica, em especial após o bloqueio combinado raqui-peridural, foi conduzido estudo prospectivo randomizado e encoberto, com setenta e sete parturientes que solicitaram analgesia regional durante o trabalho de parto. As pacientes do grupo estudo (41 casos) receberam duplo bloqueio com sufentanil e bupivacaína e as do grupo controle (36 casos) foram submetidas à peridural com as mesmas drogas. Monitorizou-se o tônus uterino por meio de cateter intra-amniótico de aferição da pressão intra-uterina e a freqüência cardíaca fetal durante 15 minutos antes e 30 minutos após a indução da analgesia. Pesquisaram-se os seguintes desfechos após a administração da analgesia: ocorrência de aumento do tônus uterino superior ou igual a 10mmHg em relação aos valores pré-analgesia e presença de desacelerações prolongadas da FCF ou bradicardia. Foram ainda quantificados os escores maternos de dor, a pressão arterial materna e o uso de ocitocina, antes e após o bloqueio. Observou-se associação significativa tanto do aumento de tônus uterino quanto das alterações da FCF com a analgesia combinada, nos primeiros 15 minutos após sua administração. O aumento de tônus foi encontrado em 17 de 41 casos no grupo estudo e em 6 de 36 pacientes nos controles (p=0,02). Alterações da FCF foram vistas em 11 dos 17 casos de aumento de tônus nas parturientes que receberam analgesia combinada, versus 1 de 6 no grupo peridural (p<0,001) A análise de regressão logística apontou o tipo de analgesia como fator independentemente associado ao aumento de tônus uterino, mesmo inserindo-se o uso de ocitocina como covariável. Também revelou o aumento de tônus como único fator independentemente associado ao desenvolvimento de anormalidades da FCF, mesmo com a hipotensão materna como covariável. Demonstrou-se ainda correlação entre o rápido declínio da dor com a técnica combinada e a probabilidade estimada de ocorrência simultânea de aumento do tônus e alterações da FCF. Os presentes achados reforçam a teoria de que o duplo bloqueio pode levar a aumento transitório de tônus uterino e culminar em anormalidades da FCF / In order to investigate the association between uterine tone elevation and fetal heart rate (FHR) abnormalities following labor analgesia - mainly with combined spinal-epidural (CSE) technique - a prospective double-blinded randomized study was conducted with seventy seven parturients who requested labor analgesia. Study group (41 cases) received CSE with sufentanil and bupivacaine and control group (36 cases) received epidural analgesia with the same drugs. Intra-uterine pressure was monitored with intra-amniotic pressure device and FHR with external transducer, both for at least 15 minutes before and 30 minutes after analgesia induction. The primary outcomes were the occurrence of an elevation of 10mmHg or more on uterine tone compared to the values before analgesia and the presence of prolonged fetal heart rate decelerations or fetal bradycardia. Maternal pain scores, blood pressure and use of oxytocin were also computed. A significant association was noticed between elevation of uterine tone and fetal heart rate abnormalities with combined spinal-epidural analgesia, at the first 15 minutes of administration. Uterine tone elevation was observed in 17 out of 41 CSE subjects and only 6 out of 36 controls (p=0.02). Fetal heart rate abnormalities were seen in 11 out of 17 cases that had hypertonus with combined analgesia and in only one of the 6 epidural patients (p<0.001). Logistic regression analysis revealed the mode of analgesia as the independent factor for the elevation of uterine tone, even with oxytocin use as a covariate. It also pointed out the uterine tone elevation as the only independent factor related to the development of fetal heart rate abnormalities, even with maternal hipotension as a covariate. A correlation was found between the fast onset pain relief provided by CSE analgesia and the estimated probability of uterine tone elevation and simultaneous fetal heart rate abnormalities. The present results strengthen the hypothesis that CSE analgesia can lead to a transient increase in uterine tone, leading to fetal bradycardia

Purpose of this thesis is to study the principle of operation of cardiotocography in monitoring fetal life, further defining the main requirements for this equipment and defining the parameters of monitored biosignals. These findings are supported by the literature. Based on the gained knowledge, the system design of cardiotocography is made with focus on reading contractions. Main parameters of the function blocks are defined. Circuit solution for sensing contractions is suggested, including the design of the sensor. Designed circuits are verified on a prototype.

The type and duration of observation and monitoring of mother and fetus after abdominal trauma are dependent on gestational age and severity of trauma. Fetal monitoring is usually not required when the fetus is not viable; the primary consideration is the safety of the mother. When the fetus is viable, 24-hour inpatient fetal monitoring is indicated in cases of major trauma, even when no symptoms of injury are obvious.

This research study explored and described a partogram as a clinical practice guideline for monitoring and managing women during labour at Vhembe District of Limpopo province. A qualitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual design was used in order to achieve the study objectives. Purposive sampling was carried out to select three hospitals in order to obtain comprehensive data from the district. The research study was conducted in three phases. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 midwives who were selected conveniently from the three hospitals. Document study was also conducted on 24 partograms that were conveniently selected from the three hospitals on the days that interviews were conducted, using a self-designed checklist. Tesch’s eight steps of qualitative data analysis were used to analyse the data, and simple, descriptive statistics using frequencies were used to analyse the data obtained from the document study. Four themes that emerged from the data are: benefits of implementing the partogram, challenges experienced, attitudes of staff and evaluation on how the guideline is being implemented in the wards, including giving feedback. These aspects were indicated as pivotal in the implementation of the guideline in monitoring a woman during labour. The findings on document study revealed gaps in recording, mostly on aspects that needed frequent observations and on aspects in which resources that needed to be used in monitoring were lacking. The strategies to improve the implementation of a guideline were developed based on the research findings, sent to one of the hospitals for review and comments were included in the discussions. It is recommended that in-service training on the implementation of the partogram be conducted regularly for midwives. Hospital management and supervisors need to provide support, enough staff and equipment in order to enable midwives to use the partogram / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

This research study explored and described a partogram as a clinical practice guideline for monitoring and managing women during labour at Vhembe District of Limpopo province. A qualitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual design was used in order to achieve the study objectives. Purposive sampling was carried out to select three hospitals in order to obtain comprehensive data from the district. The research study was conducted in three phases. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 midwives who were selected conveniently from the three hospitals. Document study was also conducted on 24 partograms that were conveniently selected from the three hospitals on the days that interviews were conducted, using a self-designed checklist. Tesch’s eight steps of qualitative data analysis were used to analyse the data, and simple, descriptive statistics using frequencies were used to analyse the data obtained from the document study. Four themes that emerged from the data are: benefits of implementing the partogram, challenges experienced, attitudes of staff and evaluation on how the guideline is being implemented in the wards, including giving feedback. These aspects were indicated as pivotal in the implementation of the guideline in monitoring a woman during labour. The findings on document study revealed gaps in recording, mostly on aspects that needed frequent observations and on aspects in which resources that needed to be used in monitoring were lacking. The strategies to improve the implementation of a guideline were developed based on the research findings, sent to one of the hospitals for review and comments were included in the discussions. It is recommended that in-service training on the implementation of the partogram be conducted regularly for midwives. Hospital management and supervisors need to provide support, enough staff and equipment in order to enable midwives to use the partogram / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)