Yes / Recent years have seen the increasing concern for the flourish of shadow banking in China and India. In this paper, we aim to get a better understanding of the differences in trends and investigate the factors leading to the rise of shadow banking in these two major emerging economies. We find that financial exclusion is a common factor leading to the rise of shadow banking in China and India. While financial reform has taken place in India, financial repressive policies still prevail in China. Although several regulatory measures have been adopted in India and China, the size of the shadow banking in these two countries remains underestimated. Thus, streamlining and enhancing data collection is a key priority for both India and China. We also argue that the regulation in both countries should be more activity focused rather than sector or entity based, and it should be at par with banks. As shadow banks provide last mile connectivity and enhance financial inclusion, a balanced approach is required keeping in view both benefits and costs of the shadow banking system.

Yes

Mobile financial services, specifically mobile money, has the potential to expand access to financial services to millions of unbanked people in South Africa. As such, it looks very promising in terms of financial inclusion. However, concerns exist that mobile money can be detrimental to financial integrity since there are several proven risk factors linked to mobile financial services. These risk factors make mobile money very susceptible to money laundering. The potential for abuse and the need for appropriate controls is therefore something which cannot be ignored. While the South African legislator has made provision for comprehensive anti-money laundering preventative measures by means of the Financial Intelligence Centre Act 38 of 2001, there exists no South African legislation explicitly concerned with mobile money. It is therefore difficult to determine what the regulatory stance is in terms of mobile money in South Africa. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is, however, currently focusing attention on the effect which mobile money may have on financial integrity. The latest FATF Recommendations make provision for several anti-money laundering controls which are specifically applicable to mobile money, including controls regarding money or value transfer services and new technologies. While it is always difficult to balance financial integrity and financial inclusion, the risk-based approach makes it possible for governments to implement effective antimoney laundering measures, thereby preserving financial integrity, without the need to compromise on financial inclusion objectives. The fact that South Africa has not fully adopted a risk-based approach is a problem which needs to be addressed if mobile money is to deliver on its promises for financial inclusion, without being detrimental to financial integrity. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Mobile financial services, specifically mobile money, has the potential to expand access to financial services to millions of unbanked people in South Africa. As such, it looks very promising in terms of financial inclusion. However, concerns exist that mobile money can be detrimental to financial integrity since there are several proven risk factors linked to mobile financial services. These risk factors make mobile money very susceptible to money laundering. The potential for abuse and the need for appropriate controls is therefore something which cannot be ignored. While the South African legislator has made provision for comprehensive anti-money laundering preventative measures by means of the Financial Intelligence Centre Act 38 of 2001, there exists no South African legislation explicitly concerned with mobile money. It is therefore difficult to determine what the regulatory stance is in terms of mobile money in South Africa. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is, however, currently focusing attention on the effect which mobile money may have on financial integrity. The latest FATF Recommendations make provision for several anti-money laundering controls which are specifically applicable to mobile money, including controls regarding money or value transfer services and new technologies. While it is always difficult to balance financial integrity and financial inclusion, the risk-based approach makes it possible for governments to implement effective antimoney laundering measures, thereby preserving financial integrity, without the need to compromise on financial inclusion objectives. The fact that South Africa has not fully adopted a risk-based approach is a problem which needs to be addressed if mobile money is to deliver on its promises for financial inclusion, without being detrimental to financial integrity. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / South Africa’s Financial Sector Charter of 2003 to 2008 contributed in many ways to financial inclusion of the excluded masses, resulting in a decrease in proportion of excluded excluded from over 50% in 2003 to 23.5% in 2010. Commercial banks around the world have been known to bank the unbanked or downscale using various models. The report investigates the motivation for commercial bank downscaling in South Africa, leading to the various models of downscaling chosen by the Big 4. The reports finds that commercial banks in South Africa are moving away from fragmented methods of engagement of the bottom of the pyramid due to the large market which exists at that segment. This market accounts for on average 50% of the banks’ clients which indicates that banks have been dealing with this market for some time. The recent rise of a Microfinance bank has been credited as the stimulus for the more aggressive approach that banks have taken in recent years. Bank employees believe they have the resources and support to explore models of serving the market profitably while external stakeholder to the bank believe the banks are not geared for the market due to their cost structures and mentality and are therefore not fully exploring the potential in the market.

La siguiente investigación pretende analizar la relevancia del dinero electrónico y cómo este afecta a los niveles de inclusión financiera en el Perú y en Colombia para un periodo de tiempo del 2013 al 2017. En el caso peruano, se comprobó una relación positiva de ambas variables, esto fue comprobado por medio de una regresión de Mínimos Cuadrados Ordinarios. Para el caso colombiano, se pudo observar una relación también positiva, pero mucho más fuerte entre estas variables. En este caso, se utilizó el modelo de Mínimos Cuadrados Generalizados con la Matriz Newey-West. / The following research aims to analyze the relevance of electronic money and how it affects financial inclusion in Peru and Colombia, between the period from 2013 to 2017. In the case of Peru, a positive relationship of both variables was verified, by means of a regression of Ordinary Minimum Squares. In the case of Colombia, a positive relationship was also observed, but much stronger among these variables. In this case, the Generalized Minimum Square model with the Newey-West Matrix was used. / Trabajo de investigación

Thesis advisor: S. Anukriti / Since the launch of M-PESA in 2007, mobile money has created the potential to increase financial inclusion by providing a safe and convenient place to store wealth. This paper analyzes the impact of mobile money on savings practices in Sub-Saharan Africa. Using 2015 survey data from Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, I find that mobile money account holders are 10.9 percent more likely to save than non-account holders, holding constant other characteristics. Mobile money has a positive and significant impact on saving for daily consumption, for protection against income shocks, and for business and education investments. In addition, I find that mobile money is a complement to formal savings (bank accounts) and a substitute for informal savings. By increasing saving, mobile money better enables individuals to rely on savings in the event of a negative income shock. These results are consistent with a policy agenda that promotes financial inclusion by increasing access to mobile technologies. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2017. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: Economics.

Microfinance has grown from a niche development intervention in the 1990s to one that commands global influence and donor support. By 2006 microfinance had become part of financial sector development policy through the concept of financial inclusion. At the same time theoretical analysis of economic development increasingly focused on the role of institutions and getting institutions right - including for the financial sector – which has given rise to attempts to theorize gradual institutional change. This convergence of policy, and theoretical emphasis on institutions, raises the central question as to what institutions and institutional changes are necessary for the financial sector to effectively serve poor people. The experience of microfinance sector growth over a decade in two countries has been investigated using a ‘micro-ethnographic’ methodology to respond to this question. The research finds that a focus on institutional functions rather than institutional forms aids definitional precision and allows comparability across markets. Social norms underpinned the development of institutional functions, as theories of social embeddedness suggest. These norms also became integrated into institutional functions through the process of change, adding to critiques of externally imposed ‘best practice’ institutional blueprints. Further, beyond the widely accepted institutional functions which the rest of the financial market needs to operate efficiently, this research highlights the importance of a constitutional function (or law) to include poor people in the formal financial system, appropriate supervision for microfinance providers and support for the development of microfinance. Recent theories of institutional change offer insights beyond path dependency in identifying spaces for change and how changes will ‘stick’. However, to better analyse change at the level of particular institutional arenas, greater elaboration is needed of: how to incorporate multiple sets of agents (including external development agents) and multiple institutional functions; appropriate time-frames for analysis and processes of actor engagement.

En este trabajo se analiza el porqué del incipiente crecimiento de las Mipymes peruanas a pesar de las iniciativas del gobierno para dar lugar a la inclusión financiera como herramienta principal para generar el desarrollo de las microempresas, pequeñas y medianas empresas. En efecto, el financiamiento adecuado es una de las principales barreras del crecimiento empresarial entre otros factores como los costos e impuestos a los que se someten. Por lo tanto, resulta prioritario canalizar los fondos que ya se han logrado captar con el propósito de impulsar el crecimiento de las Mipymes para lograr una economía fortalecida. Actualmente, a pesar de que el gobierno cuenta con estos fondos disponibles y ha creado una metodología para asignarlos, se ha demostrado, a través de los resultados económicos, que los ratios como la PEA, los valores de exportación, la recolección de impuestos, entre otros, no son los esperados para responder a los planes estratégicos. El estudio nos ha permitido identificar debilidades y fortalezas en la estructuración de la llamada inclusión financiera, no sólo en el Perú sino a nivel de América Latina. Tomando en cuenta los resultados, se puede decir que existen deficiencias en la estructura de las instituciones gubernamentales que tienen la misión de impulsar la inclusión financiera, denotándose la poca experiencia en la creación de centros de desarrollo empresarial, los que deberían congregar instituciones con recursos humanos especializados para gestionarlos y aprovechar las redes para generar beneficios mutuos con una cobertura eficiente de cara al desarrollo económico del país. / This paper analyzes the reason for the incipient growth of the Peruvian MSMEs, despite the government's initiatives to create financial inclusion as the main program to generate the development of micro, small and medium enterprises. Indeed, adequate financing is one of the main barriers to business growth, among other factors such as the costs and taxes. Therefore, it is a priority to manage the funds that have already been gained in order to promote the growth of MSMEs to achieve a strengthened economy. Currently, although the government has these available funds and has created a methodology to allocate them, it has been revealed, through economic results, that the ratios such as the economically active population, the export values, the collection of taxes, among others are not responding to strategic plans. The study has allowed us to identify weaknesses and strengths in the structuring of the so-called financial inclusion programs, not only in Peru but also in Latin America. Taking into account the results, it can be affirmed that there are deficiencies in the structure of the governmental institutions that, originally have the mission of facilitating financial inclusion, denoting the little experience to generate business development centers, which should gather institutions with specialized human resources to manage them and take advantage of the networks to generate mutual benefits with an efficient level of coverage for the economic development of the country. / Trabajo de Suficiencia Profesional

This dissertation explores the impact of policy and economic conditions on the current economic crises of crime, substance abuse, and financial exclusion faced domestically and abroad. Although these issues span the income distribution, impoverished regions are disproportionately affected by the highest rates of risky behaviors such as drug abuse and crime. The ability for public policy makers to affect large populations of at-risk individuals can be difficult; oftentimes, these groups operate outside of the public sphere and large-scale interventions can miss the mark. In my first substantive chapter, I investigate the efficacy of state-wide insurance reform aimed at reducing drug dependency by requiring insurance providers to cover rehabilitation and detoxification. Utilizing state-level panel data in a generalized differences-in-differences framework, I find that states which enact laws expanding insurance coverage are successful at encouraging treatments for some types of conditions but are limited in their ability to reach individuals struggling with opiate addiction and, correspondingly, have little impact on deterring accidental overdose deaths. In my second substantive chapter, I question the assumptions made in previous empirical work regarding the relationship between economic conditions and crime. Existing literature finds that property crime rates are positively correlated with the unemployment rate. In this paper, I investigate whether this relationship is evolving over time and find that the relationship between property crime rates and unemployment has diminished toward zero. Moreover, I find evidence that there is a non-zero relationship between unemployment and violent crimes during certain periods in time. In my last substantive chapter, we develop a theoretical model illustrating the basic trade-offs in the functioning of financial institutions (Village and Savings Loan Associations) designed to provide financial inclusion to under-served populations in developing countries. We develop a theoretical model which suggests that these groups lack a mechanism to ensure equilibrium in the supply and demand for funds. We test the predictions of this model using experimental data from newly formed groups in Uganda and find that groups operate with excess demand for loans but are often able to generate a high return on savings. This dissertation includes previously unpublished co-authored material.