Pregnant First Nations women who live on reserves in rural and remote regions of Canada are routinely evacuated to urban cities to await labour and birth; this is commonly referred to as Health Canada’s evacuation policy. I produced two stand alone papers to investigate this policy. In the first, I investigated the development and implementation of the Canadian government’s evacuation policy. Archival research showed that the evacuation policy began to take shape in 1892 and was founded on Canada’s goals to assimilate and civilize First Nations. My second paper employed First Nations feminist theory to understand why the evacuation policy does not result in good health, especially for First Nations women. Because the evacuation policy is incongruent with First Nations’ epistemologies, it compromises First Nations’ health. I offer policy recommendations to promote First Nations health in a way that is consistent with First Nations’ epistemologies and goals towards self-determination and self-governance.

The Canadian Incidence Study on Reported Child Abuse and Neglect (Trocme, 2001) found that structural factors such as poverty, poor housing and substance misuse contribute to the over-representation of First Nations children in child welfare care and yet there is very little information on the experiences of First Nations and Non-Aboriginal children after they are placed in care. The When Everything Matters study tracks First Nations and Non-Aboriginal chlidren removed from their families between 2003-2005 in Nova Scotia to the time of reunification or to the time of data collection if the child remained in care. The characteristics of children and their families are compared to the primary aims of child welfare services provided to children and their families. Results indicate that poor families living in poor housing are graphically over-represented among all families who have their children removed. Poverty-related services were not provided to families in proportion to its occurrence. Caregiver incapacity related to substance misuse was most often cited as the primary reason for removal and although substance misuse services were provided there is a need for further child welfare training, policy and services in this area given the scope of the problem presenting in both First Nations and Non-Aboriginal families. Study findings are nested in a new bi-cultural theoretical framework founded in First Nations ontology and physic's theory of everything called the breath of life theory. Implications for theoretical development as well as child welfare research, policy and practice are discussed.

Six Nations women transformed and maintained power in the Grand River community in the early twentieth century. While no longer matrilineal or matrilocal, and while women no longer had effective political power neither as clan mothers, nor as voters or councillors in the post-1924 elective Council system, women did have authority in the community. During this period, women effected change through various methods that were both new and traditional for Six Nations women. Their work was also similar to non-Native women in Ontario. Education was key to women’s authority at Grand River. Six Nations women became teachers in great numbers during this period, and had some control over the education of children in their community. Children were taught Anglo-Canadian gender roles; girls were educated to be mothers and homemakers, and boys to be farmers and breadwinners. Children were also taught to be loyal British subjects and to maintain the tradition of alliance with Britain that had been established between the Iroquois and the English in the seventeenth century. With the onset of the Great War in 1914, Six Nations men and women responded with gendered patriotism, again, in ways that were both similar to Anglo-Canadians, and in ways that were similar to traditional Iroquois responses to war; men fought and women provided support on the home-front. Women’s patriotic work at home led to increased activity in the post-war period on the reserve. Six Nations women made use of social reform organizations and voluntary associations to make improvements in their community, particularly after the War. The Women’s Institutes were especially popular because they were malleable, practical, and useful for rural women’s needs. Women exerted power through these organizations, and effected positive change on the reserve.

Gender is an intrinsic part of the colonization process. This thesis examines the social construction of gender in the colonial context of the Indian Industrial Schools of western Canada. Through a case study of the official and hidden curricula of the Regina Indian Industrial School, this thesis explores the attempted imposition of Victorian Euro-Canadian ideals of gender upon Aboriginal youth around the turn of the century. The curricula of the Regina Indian Industrial school, as well as other western Industrial schools, was shaped by Victorian ideologies of gender, which promoted separate spheres for men and women, a cult of domesticity, sexual division of labour, and binary oppositions. The curriculum of the Regina Indian Industrial School became a method of conveying Euro-Canadian discourses of Victorian gender ideals. While boys in the Indian industrial schools were educated to become breadwinners, girls were socialized into domestic roles. Employing feminist, post-colonial, and poststructural theories and research methods, this study provides a textual analysis of records of government and church officials regarding gender and the curriculum of the Regina Indian Industrial School.

The purpose of this thesis is to examine impacts of devolution of post secondary education focusing on First Nations in Canada. I will critically examine the impacts of devolution and education policy in relation to First Nation administration of the post secondary education program. I argue that the issue of post secondary education as a First Nation treaty right is at the center of discord in relation to education policy. The nature and scope of post secondary education as a treaty right continues to be an unresolved issue between First Nations' and the Federal Government of Canada.<p> In the 1960s, the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (DIAND) administered a successful post secondary program resulting in increased numbers of First Nation students overall in college, technical and university populations. The policy of the time was to create conditions for First Nations to increase access to higher education. In time, the direction of the policy would change as in the 1980s the government's fiduciary responsibilities devolved post secondary education to First Nations.<p> Devolution of programs and services provided the rationale for greater self-control for First Nations to train their own labour force. The process of devolution, however, has not benefited most First Nations in terms of the amount of funding available for the delivery and administration of programs and services. Rather, insufficient budget allocations resulted in some First Nation administrations inheriting a deficit budget for programs and services.<p> An examination of the Indian Act provides evidence to the state's larger project of moral regulation within its education policy. The thesis provides a view of how First Nations have internalized limitations contained within social policies of the Indian Act. First Nations are faced with challenges in educating, training and securing employment for their band membership. Due to the nature of the funding, First Nations are forced to make decisions on which band members can access programs and services. Moreover, when examining the impacts of defining who is the right kind of Indian to educate, First Nations education policy demonstrates the internalization of what is the right kind of Indian to educate and train by the nature and scope of their criteria. First Nations are in control of training their own labour force and developing criteria on who is the right kind of Indian to educate.

The Saskatchewan First Nations leadership development study is essentially a continuation of my previous research on First Nations leadership and spirituality (2002). The purpose of this study was to explore First Nations leadership and leadership development in Saskatchewan within the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations organizational context. To accomplish this, the study involved an extensive literature review on Indigenous and Western leadership and leadership development theories. Further, an examination of four established and prominent North American Indigenous leadership development programs was conducted to gain further understanding of Indigenous leadership. In addition, 10 First Nations leaders from the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations participated in in-depth interviews. <p>Qualitative inquiry was chosen for this study because qualitative research methods were congruent with First Nations methods of sharing and preserving information. In-depth interviews with semi-structured questions were conducted to obtain information on Saskatchewan First Nations leadership and leadership development. All but one participant agreed to the use of an audio taped interview. Once the interviews were complete, Atlas-ti, a computer software program, was used to assist in the coding, categorizing, and thematic emergence process. <p>The four Aboriginal leadership development programs that were examined were University of Arizonas Native Nations Institute for Leadership, Management, and Policy, Pennsylvania States American Indian Leadership Program, Banff Centres Aboriginal Leadership and Management Program, and the Aboriginal Leadership Institute Incorporated, located in Winnipeg. These programs strived to remain current and were involved in research initiatives. Moreover, they all attempted to incorporate First Nations culture, history, and issues alongside Western leadership skills, training, and education. They evolved, adapted, and were sensitive to change and innovation in leadership development. First Nations leadership development programs, like those studied, are valuable because they unite Aboriginal leadership for the purpose of personal and professional growth.<p>The First Nations leaders that participated in this study shared personal and professional leadership and leadership development experiences and philosophy. <p>The leaders indicated that being a First Nations leader was challenging because it continuously contended with two fundamentally different cultures Western and First Nations. In addition, First Nations poverty, lack of funding, residential school effects, addictions, among other things, made leadership difficult. Because First Nations leadership is physically, emotionally, intellectually, and spiritually taxing, many of the Chiefs cited internal rather than material satisfaction. Moreover, these leaders were often motivated by a cause and the desire for collective well-being and positive change. Family, community members, other leaders, Elders, and the Creator were acknowledged as sources of strength and inspiration. <p>The First Nations leaders who participated in the study perceived leadership development as a life-long process of formal and informal learning experiences. Consequently, many of the leaders indicated that leadership development began in childhood with individual and family development. The leaders described a First Nations leadership development program that was flexible (able to work in community, tribal, and provincial settings), cognizant of First Nations culture, needs, and issues, and aware of current and innovative leadership practices. First Nations leadership development should also incorporate Western knowledge, skills, and education. <p>This First Nations leadership investigation has provided invaluable insight into the values, beliefs, worldview, and philosophies that entail and ultimately constitute Indigenous leadership and leadership development. Studies that focus on Indigenous leadership development ultimately have significant implications for theory, research, fundamental, and practical applications for learning organizations.

Recent waterborne disease outbreaks in Canada have brought national awareness to drinking water safety. In particular, the long history of poor water quality plaguing First Nations communities has received substantial public attention. Despite several initiatives from the federal government and considerable financial support, the quality of drinking water on reserves has shown little improvement and continues to pose health risks. As a result, there is a growing interest in the ability of First Nations communities to effectively manage their drinking water resources. The purpose of this study was to assess the capacity of Montreal Lake, SK to provide its residents with safe drinking water, both now and into the future. This research employed a mixed methods approach in the examination of the communitys water system and management practices. Data sources included individual interviews, a public workshop, documents and inspection reports, and water quality data. Water system capacity was considered in terms of financial, human resources, institutional, social/political, and technical dimensions. An analytical framework was developed through a literature review where each dimension of capacity was rated based on a series of indicators. It was determined that there are no serious deficiencies in the management of Montreal Lakes drinking water. However, a number of flaws in each aspect drinking water management were detected. These include weak linkages between the agencies responsible for drinking water provision, and a low level of drinking water safety for community residents served by the truck haul distribution system. This research confirms the multi-dimensional aspects of water system capacity, reveals the necessity for the different levels of authority to work together, and provides an analytical framework which may be applicable to future studies examining First Nations and small-scale drinking water systems.

From my position as ally to an Anishnawbe community in Northern Ontario, I explored the relationships of community members to postsecondary education. Eight current and former students, a teacher at the school and a band councilor, shared with me their experiences and their knowledge about the Community and its school system. The data revealed that in Northern Ontario, the transition from the on-reserve school system to whitestream education at any level is very difficult for Community members, and is exacerbated by family violence and tensions and a perception of lower quality teaching and resources in the community schools. Participants also chose more college programs when first entering postsecondary education, and attended the college in the nearby town most frequently. Suspicion of and isolation from the whitestream school system as a result of the impact of residential schools still exists, and continues to have an effect on community participation in education.

From my position as ally to an Anishnawbe community in Northern Ontario, I explored the relationships of community members to postsecondary education. Eight current and former students, a teacher at the school and a band councilor, shared with me their experiences and their knowledge about the Community and its school system. The data revealed that in Northern Ontario, the transition from the on-reserve school system to whitestream education at any level is very difficult for Community members, and is exacerbated by family violence and tensions and a perception of lower quality teaching and resources in the community schools. Participants also chose more college programs when first entering postsecondary education, and attended the college in the nearby town most frequently. Suspicion of and isolation from the whitestream school system as a result of the impact of residential schools still exists, and continues to have an effect on community participation in education.

In the 1970s, discussions began regarding the settlement of outstanding land claims from First Nations, the settling of Treaty Land Entitlement (TLE). The Office of the Treaty Commissioner (OTC) was developed to facilitate intergovernmental agreements with First Nations bands. This endeavour created discussions that led to the signing of the Treaty Land Entitlement Framework Agreement (TLEFA) in 1992. Lands purchased through TLE can be leased, creating revenues for the First Nations band. Those revenues can then be used to facilitate economic development and wealth creation for the band. It is through this access to capital that First Nations are starting to break their financial dependency on the Crown. It has been almost two decades since the signing of the TLEFA, and one can begin to measure the economic impact TLE has had for First Nations communities. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation (MLCN) is one such band that has been deemed successful, both by themselves and by outsiders, in the area of economic development. Success depends on a community developing an economic model that incorporates Aboriginal cultural values. By doing so, a cultural-oriented confidence is created, and this confidence can help foster economic success. The framework for this study is based around the Harvard Project on Indian Economic Development and its basis for economic success being founded on a community having confidence in their business model as it fits with their worldview. The methods employed in this study include a survey of primary and secondary documents in the area of TLE/TLEFA, and in economic development related to First Nations bands. Interviews were conducted with those involved in the signing and the overseeing of the TLEFA. Archival materials have been made available courtesy of Roy Romanow during his time as Attorney General for Saskatchewan. The research demonstrates that First Nations bands can break their financial dependency with the Crown through economic development strategies that are congruent with the First Nations cultural values.