This thesis addresses multi-scale approaches for improving food security with nutritional health. It argues that four key themes: scale, nutrition, trade, and governance are not given adequate attention in food security and nutrition studies. A multi-scale framework links the overriding thematic structure, bridges gaps, and enriches analysis. It facilitates a blended approach of analysis for food security and nutrition studies, public policy, and critical geography. Nutrition is at the centre of the inquiry and addresses the triple burden of malnutrition: hunger, micronutrient malnutrition, and obesity. Nutrition is hampered by an incomplete understanding of dietary diversity. Trade and governance are complimentary and cover dynamic commodity exchanges which might develop along with improved programme delivery. At the structural core of the work are four research papers which interact with established and emergent food security indicators and data for: the international system, nations, Indian states, and districts within Karnataka. Each paper uses specific methodological tools which are most compatible with the unique characteristics of the relevant scale. The first paper applies benchmarking and compares international FAO food security indictors with the EIU and other best practice sources to argue for improved data. In order to inform malnutrition beyond hunger, the second paper inputs FAOSTAT national food balance sheet data into a dietary food supply model of key nutritional food groups for medium activity individuals. The third paper employs Indiastat data to construct a food potential model representative of major components of the Indian food system, and compares it with production information for pulse varieties for inclusion in the NFSA. The fourth paper creates a nutritional HDI, compares it against the production of cereals and pulses, and considers weather conditions. Results illustrate that the FAO does not give proper attention to including governance indicators or capturing dietary diversity beyond hunger. Food balance sheet data shows that the majority of the world lacks the proper supply of key food groups to sustain a medium activity lifestyle, with fruit & vegetable deficits equally present in developed and developing nations. In India, states with the lowest food potential are located in the north and east of the country while some neighbouring states contain pulse production advantages. Further opportunities exist to use digital technologies to improve the administration of the programme. Similarly, northern districts of Karnataka require more direct NFSA intervention while the southern and coastal districts have the potential for increased production and trade of pulses. Implications for this study are centred on the development of future food security and nutritional health studies, policy, and administration. When possible, food security and nutrition studies can broaden their conclusions by expanding their base of indicators and data to take into account multi-disciplinary information. Possibilities for richer studies are evident through the development of more robust governance and dietary diversity indicators. These could focus on measurable programme results and take into account the impact of food groups and nutritional supply on various types of malnutrition. Multi-scale analysis might inspire cross-boundary policy formulation and assist in the development and trade of food system resources. The administration of food security programmes might improve with further study and the use of technology as a tool for delivery. This thesis clarifies how multi-scale approaches to food security and nutrition can be advanced through conceptual, methodological, and empirical work combining critical engagement, data analysis, and public policy.

Building resilient communities has emerged as a dominant agenda in the policy arena and in academia in the wake of recent disasters. However, there is a lack of clarity on the specific interventions required to build resilience. Current challenges associated with resilience include ambiguity, unclear measures, and problematized applicability. This thesis evaluates the determinants of resilience to drought in community food systems as a basis for contributing towards a more advanced understanding of resilience. A schematic model linking the key concepts associated with resilience was developed on the basis of literature review. This model was subsequently applied to a sample of 195 farm households, 16 community meetings and about 45 interviews with key informants across eight villages in Nsanje and Mzimba districts in Malawi interviewed between October 2010 and February 2011. Analysis at household level focused on exploring the causes of vulnerability, the role of livelihood assets and institutions in shaping coping and adaptation, and the implication of these to the meaning of resilience. The thesis concluded that vulnerability to food insecurity was produced by an interaction of slow and fast moving factors and processes, some of which were highly persistent. Access to livelihood assets and institutions increased short term coping and adaptive capacity but did not effectively predict resilience given unknowns regarding asset availability and liquidity over the long term. Different socio-economic groups associated different meanings with the concept of resilience, and in some cases, one group achieved ‘resilience’ at the expense of the larger community. In integrating vulnerability into resilience thinking, the analysis suggested that resilience could be analysed as existing in desirable and undesirable forms. Undesirable resiliencies reinforced the vulnerable state. By addressing the factors that sustain vulnerability, response capacity could be enhanced. This being the case, advanced by this thesis is a shift from focusing on resilience as a utopian goal, in favour of practices that enhance response capacity and letting communities learn for themselves and transform their value sets to ones that are more likely to ensure coping with adverse conditions. The study concludes that the concept of resilience in its current form is of more value as an organising framework within the re-engineering of food, agricultural, development and disaster management policy can be undertaken.

This study addresses the question of how climate variability, in terms of seasonal rainfall variation, might affect food security in Malawi. It hypothesizes that seasonal rainfall variation could cause food insecurity and that the consequences of weather hazards possibly differ within the country. An additional aim of this study is therefore to map local resilience in Malawi to estimate the adaptation ability by analyzing two subsamples. The hypothesis is tested by using a two-way fixed effect regression analysis and panel data for 28 districts in Malawi covering the years 2000, 2004, 2010 and 2015. This study finds no statistically significant effect of seasonal rainfall variation on children’s health for the examined years.

Purpose: Food insecurity is an important social determinant of health and is linked with higher health care costs. There is a high prevalence of food insecurity among recent immigrant households in Canada. The aim of the present project was to evaluate the prevalence of food insecurity in immigrant and non-immigrant households in Ottawa, to explore determinants of food insecurity in that population and to evaluate the link between food insecurity, diet quality and weight status. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted with a convenience sample of 258 Ottawa households having a child between 6 and 12 years old, with a mother born in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean or Canada. Health Canada’s Household Food Security Survey Module was used to evaluate participants’ food access in the past 12 months. Children’s dietary intake was evaluated with the use of a 24-hour recall and a modified Healthy Eating Index diet quality score was calculated. Chi-square and logistic and linear regression analyses were used to determine correlates of food insecurity and its link with diet quality and weight status (n=249). Results: A high rate of food insecurity (39%) was found among participants. Household food insecurity was associated with low education attainment, lone motherhood, mother’s visible minority status, recent arrival to Canada, limited English fluency, reliance on social assistance, and subsidized/temporary/COOP housing. Food insecurity was associated with consumption of sweetened beverages, lower consumption of saturated fat among children, and with obesity among mothers. Conclusion: These findings suggest that food insecurity is associated with certain indicators of poor diet quality among children and with obesity among mothers. The findings also highlight the need for food insecurity to be explicitly addressed in immigrant integration strategies in order to improve the financial power of new immigrants to purchase sufficient, nutritious, and culturally acceptable foods. Enhancing immigrants’ access to affordable child care and well-paid jobs, improving social assistance programs, and providing more subsidized housing programs would be beneficial to help reduce food insecurity and increase diet quality.

Thesis (M.Sc) (Agriculture) --University of Limpopo, 2007. / It is beyond doubt that a large proportion of the population in the rural areas are experiencing great difficulty in securing adequate food in both amount and quality. Poverty alleviation programs are embarked in various countries with Makhuduthamaga being no exception. The study was designed to evaluate the home-based egg production projects. The study was conducted at Makhuduthamaga sub- District of Sekhukhune District of Limpopo province. Two instruments were used for data collection namely Delphi technique and two structured questionnaires. The Delphi technique was used for both the beneficiaries and the extension officers to identify, list and rank in order of importance the constraints which impacted negatively on egg production as well as the actions taken to address those constraints. Two separate questionnaires were also used to collect data from both the beneficiaries and the extension officers. Out of twenty villages a list of 231 beneficiaries of starter up packs was identified. Krecjcie and Morgan (1970) sample estimation required 144 randomly selected beneficiaries of starter up packs to participate in the study which reflected 0.6 margin of error. The two questionnaires with open ended and closed ended questions were piloted at Fetakgomo District in four villages with thirty one beneficiaries and ten extension officers. Reliability was found to be 0.81 skills, 0.80 for support from extension officers and 0.61 for government expectations. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was used for the entering data collected. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse data. The findings revealed that the majority of the beneficiaries fall within the prescribed selection criteria. Almost all except one village were given the starter up packs namely 18 layers, four bags of laying mash, cage, nipples, feeding trays and a cage as outlined in the policy. Training was considered by both the beneficiaries and the extension officers as inadequate for effective and efficient running of the home based egg production projects. The results revealed that the majority of beneficiaries did not meet government expectations. An acknowledgement was made that during the implementation of projects mistakes were committed by both beneficiaries and extension officers. Analysis of variance was also used to determine the relationship between the level of education and the extent to which government expectations were met. There was no significant relationship between skills such as technical, management, financial, administration and the extent to which government expectations were met. However there was a significant relation between marketing skills and levels of education. The majority of beneficiaries had a low level of education. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine whether there is a relationship between skills and support from the extension officers and the extent to which government expectation were met. Skills such as technical and marketing as well as the support from the extension officers attributed much to variations with regard to the extent to which government expectation were met. Constraints were also encountered which impacted negatively on egg production. Extension officers identified the following constraints such as survey not done prior to distribution, insufficient human resources, training, insufficient monitoring, inadequate transport, inability of beneficiaries to purchase feed, inadequate starter packs and failure to establish cooperatives. Beneficiaries identified constraints such as feed, training, diseases and unavailability of veterinarian, mortality of layers on arrival, theft and predation, inadequate starter packs, layers not of the same age and cages that are too small. Out the constraints mentioned only three namely insufficient transport, inadequate starter up packs `and one aspect on feed i.e. soft shelled eggs were addressed. Although the majority of beneficiaries considered home based egg production projects inadequate in providing access to adequate food, slightly over half of them favoured them as future household projects. / Kellog Foundation

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2011 / Food security in most drought-stricken areas of Limpopo Province is a challenge to the Department of Agriculture and to all the people living in the province, especially to the resource poor smallholder farmers. Finding remedial solutions to agricultural production in stress prone conditions is therefore a high priority. The introduction of Challenge Programme Water for Food (CPWF) technologies/techniques to smallholder dry land farming in Greater Giyani Municipality was seen as one of the solutions. However, there are constraints raised by CPWF technology adopters such as shortage of labour, lack of ploughing equipment, lack of credit, shortage of land and marketing. CPWF technologies are suitable for smallholder dry land farming, especially rainwater harvesting technologies. Smallholder farmers need to be remobilised and trained on the potential benefits of CPWF technologies to enhance their adoption and spread to other areas.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / Growing urban food insecurity has prompted many researchers, NGOs, international agencies and governments to advocate for urban agriculture as a livelihood strategy to improve the household food security of the urban poor. Urban agriculture is an instrument for ensuring greater food security and a livelihood strategy for urban households. In South Africa increased attention on urban agriculture is triggered by current trends of urbanization, economic instability, high unemployment rates among the urban poor, and high food prices. Unemployment and urban food insecurity are high in low-income areas. In the Cape Flats, households with no or little disposable income, are food insecure and vulnerable to food insecurity. Income and wage employment are the main determinants of food security in urban areas. However, urban agriculture projects by two NGOs assist communities to be resourceful. Abalimi Bezekhaya, an NGO assists individuals and communities to start and maintain their own community gardens while Soil for Life promotes home food gardens. Abalimi Bezekhaya and Soil for Life seek to address the urban challenge by promoting self-sustained agriculture for food security and livelihoods. There has, however, been little empirical evidence suggesting that urban agriculture projects improve the food security and livelihoods of participants. This study assessed the potential of urban agriculture to address food security, examined the ways in which agriculture is used as a livelihood strategy for household food security, determined other livelihood strategies and coping mechanisms assumed by gardeners to become food secure, and demonstrates the contribution of NGOs in promoting agriculture in poor urban areas. Furthermore, this study addressed the following research questions: do community and household gardens provide a way of improving food and nutrition security and in what way are these impacts observable within participating households. The research followed a mixed-method methodology. The literature is mapped out using international and local papers and empirical evidence collected on the subject. This study used the sustainable livelihoods approach as the theoretical lens through which to analyse the ways in which urban agriculture can be used as a viable livelihood strategy by urban gardeners. It also classified the constraints and opportunities, assets accessible, policies and institutions that exist, livelihood strategies and outcomes of the urban gardeners. The findings of the study reveal that community and home gardens contribute moderately to livelihoods and food security in Khayelitsha. The results also reveal that 85% of the gardeners were either moderately or severely food insecure. Furthermore, 76.67% of gardeners purchased their food from supermarkets and local shops. Urban agriculture therefore plays a supplementary role in addressing household food security in Khayelitsha. The potential of community and home gardens to contribute to urban household food security and livelihoods is limited access to land and government assistance. There is a need for the City of Cape Town and the Department of Agriculture to assist and strengthen the practice of community and home gardens in Khayelitsha.

Southern Africa faced a serious food security crisis after a three-year drought which started in the 1999/2000 season. In 2002, Zimbabwe and its neighbours declared food emergencies. With improved climatic conditions in 2003, Zimbabwe failed to recuperate from the crisis despite its neighbours showing signs of recovery. Instead, the food crisis in Zimbabwe intensified and has threatened the lives of many ordinary Zimbabweans. This paper argues that the land reform programme and its after effects, other government policies, international sanctions and intractable political posturing have all played a significant role in causing and prolonging the post 2000 food crisis in Zimbabwe. International and local food aid became a priority to feed the millions of hungry Zimbabweans. With severe food shortages, food aid became an important political tool used by the main players in the food distribution process to win support or discredit the other side. Drawing from the political theories of famine, this research argues that the food crisis in Zimbabwe is largely due to the failure of political accountability by the government of Zimbabwe, and also by the international relief organizations and other stakeholders who are in and outside Zimbabwe. With a thorough review of primary, secondary and scholarly literature, helped by informal discussions with people living in Zimbabwe, the research found out that the Zimbabwe food crisis has thus far failed to be resolved due to lack of political commitment and competence by the government of Zimbabwe; and an unwillingness by the international community to work with the Mugabe government which many in the west see as a dictatorship.

<p>For close to a decade, Zimbabwe has experienced a protracted socio-economic crisis. Although it is affecting both rural and urban areas, major forms of formal safety nets by the Government and Non-Governmental Organisations have been confined to rural areas. On the other hand the virtual collapse of the formal food marketing system in urban areas and the high formal unemployment rates have contributed to increased vulnerability of low income urban households to food insecurity. Using qualitative research methods, the study set out to understand livelihoods of low income urban households in Dzivaresekwa. In particular strategies low income households employ to cope with the negative macro-economic environment prevailing in Zimbabwe.</p>

Background: Food insecurity has been described as an urgent and pervasive public health issue for Aboriginal people (First Nations [FN], Métis, and Inuit) in Canada. However, national health surveys have generally excluded a large portion of the Aboriginal population (FN living on-reserve and Inuit), resulting in limited data on food insecurity in these individuals and communities. In addition, scales for measuring food insecurity have not been validated in Canadian Aboriginal populations. Food security challenges faced by Aboriginal people living in remote communities are unique and few studies have examined the perceptions of and coping strategies for food insecurity in this population. Objectives: The overall objective of this research was to explore various aspects of food insecurity (prevalence, perceptions, and coping strategies) in the remote, on-reserve First Nations community of Fort Albany, Ontario. This thesis consisted of five studies conducted in Fort Albany. The objectives for Study I were to quantitatively measure the prevalence of food insecurity using the Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) and to use two qualitative interview questions to evaluate the relevance of the HFSSM. Study II used qualitative interview questions to examine the perceptions of and coping strategies for food insecurity. Studies III and IV investigated two programs in Fort Albany that had the potential to affect food security: the school snack program and a greenhouse project. Study III assessed the impact of the school snack program on student food intake. Study IV was a descriptive case study of the context and implementation of a community greenhouse project. Study V involved the development and formative evaluation of supplemental questions for the HFSSM intended to be relevant for measuring food security in First Nations households. Methods: One adult from each household in the community was invited to complete the 18-item HFSSM, demographic questions, and an interview with questions on the relevance of the HFSSM for First Nations food security and strategies used to cope with food insecurity. To evaluate the snack program, 24 hour diet recall data were collected using the Waterloo Web-based Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (WEB-Q) in November 2004 and December 2007 with grade six to 10 students attending Peetabeck Academy in Fort Albany. Food group consumption and nutrient intake of students participating in the school snack program were compared with students who chose not to participate. Five additional questions asked students about their participation, preferences, and impressions of the snack program. Data sources for the greenhouse project included semi-directed interviews with a purposive and snowball sample of community key informants, direct observations, written documentation, and photo-documentation. The case study was carried out over a period of 33 months; from early 2009 until October of 2011. The supplemental questions for the HFSSM were drafted based on themes that had emerged from the evaluation of the relevance of the HFSSM and relevant literature. Feedback on the importance, clarity, and cultural appropriateness of each proposed question was gathered from key informants (n=12) working on food security issues with Aboriginal groups, using an online survey. Results: For the HFSSM study, of 64 households (87% response), 70% were food insecure, 17% severely and 53% moderately. The prevalence of food insecurity in households with children was 76%. Among respondents from homes rated as having severe food insecurity, all (100%) reported worrying that food would run out; times when food didn’t last and there wasn’t money to buy more; and times when they couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals. When asked about the relevance of the HFSSM, the majority of respondents felt the HFSSM did not fully capture an accurate picture of food security for their situation. Aspects missing from the HFSSM included the high cost of market food and the incorporation of traditional food practices. For the coping strategies study, a thematic analysis of interviews (n=51) revealed that food sharing, especially with family, was regarded as one of the most significant ways to adapt to food shortages. The majority of participants reported consuming traditional food (wild meats) and suggested that hunting, preserving and storing traditional food has remained very important. However, numerous barriers to traditional food acquisition were mentioned. Other coping strategies included dietary change, rationing and changing food purchasing patterns. In order to improve access to healthy foods, improving income and food affordability, building community capacity and engagement, and community-level initiatives were suggested. Findings from the school snack program study showed that students participating in the snack program had significantly higher intakes from specific food groups and related nutrients compared to those who did not participate. With the exception of Meat and Alternatives in 2004, there was a trend for a higher percentage of students to meet dietary recommendations if they participated in the snack program. Students indicated that the three things they liked most about the school snack program were the juice, that the program kept them from feeling hungry at school, and that they got a snack at school every day. Students indicated that the snack program helped them to eat healthier by motivating them, eating more fruit, and making better dietary choices. Qualitative analysis of the greenhouse case study data generated gardening related themes: seasons, fertile ground, sustainability, gardeners, ownership, participant growth, and sunshine. Amongst the gardeners, local champions were critical to project success. Positive outcomes included the involvement of many community members, a host of related activities being carried out, and that the greenhouse had introduced an opportunity to gain knowledge about growing plants in a northern greenhouse setting. For the study on measuring food security in FN households, valuable feedback was provided by key informants (n=12) on clarifying the wording of the questions as well as providing perspectives on how the questions may or may not be applicable to different Aboriginal populations. A revised list of questions was created that incorporated the feedback from key informants. Conclusions: A very high prevalence of household food insecurity was reported in this community with the prevalence especially high in households with children. On-reserve remote FN communities may be more susceptible to food insecurity than off-reserve Aboriginal populations. Findings point to the continued importance of traditional food acquisition and food sharing, as well as community solutions for food systems change. These data highlight that traditional and store-bought food are both part of the strategies and solutions participants suggested for coping with food insecurity. Given the positive impact of the school snack program on the food and nutrient intake of student participants, it is clear that school snack programs can be an important venue to address the nutritional vulnerability of FN youth living in remote communities. Community and school greenhouse projects require local champions to be successful and foster community participation and ownership. Implementing a greenhouse project can engage community members, including children, and provide a great learning opportunity for gardeners in a remote, northern community. Finally, input from community participants and experts suggest additional questions that may add relevance to food security questionnaires for FN populations. Data highlight the urgency for public health policies and initiatives that promote food security for vulnerable FN populations. Findings can be used to inform assessment and program planning activities and to advocate for policies at the local, provincial and federal levels to strengthen community food security.