The current public food assistance system in the United States depends primarily on delivery through vouchers provided to families who cannot afford adequate food due to economic hardship that they can use in retail markets to purchase food. However, how to conceptualize, define, measure, and determine the importance of access to food retail for the nearly 50 million food insecure people in the U.S. remains a challenge. These three papers provide three different methods for measuring food access in the rural context with diverging purposes and applications, moving from simple conceptions of access to more complex approaches that combine quantitative and qualitative measures. I seek to answer the question: How can critical GIS be used to better understand the relationship between access to food retailers, public nutrition assistance programs, and food shopping patterns in rural Arizona? This question is further refined by three sub-questions: How can GIS be used to develop a better measure of physical access to food retail for nutrition assistance recipients in rural areas? What are the barriers to food access for recipients beyond physical access, and how can these be incorporated into measures of accessibility? How does accessibility of food retail affect recipients’ food shopping habits? Through using a grounded mixed-methods approach, I hope to integrate quantitative measures of access with qualitative insight into individual intentions and lived experience in using public assistance benefits to shop for food. Taken together, these papers provide a broad view on how to better quantify and measure food access in the rural setting, as well as avenues for further development of access measures and interventions to ensure equity in food access for all.

Driven by global population growth and anticipated increases in demand for food as well as a number of other goods and services, the issue of food security has recently (re-)emerged in both policy and academic contexts. Using a modified political economy perspective, this study recognises the role of the family farm as policy operatives in this context and considers the potential influence of intergenerational farm transfer on the delivery of food security objectives. It also explores how the food security agenda, described by some as the renaissance in agriculture, is influencing the farming community and in particular, the appeal of succeeding to the family farm. Broadly, it seeks to add to, and develop the body of knowledge relating to family farm succession, and explores the linkages between succession and the food security agenda. The study used 1941-1943 National Farm Survey data and maps as a tool to facilitate semi-structured interviews with farmers, and where applicable their potential successors, in Hatherleigh and surrounding parishes, Devon, UK. The study also highlights the absence of the potential successor from family farm research and subsequently resolves definitional issues surrounding the term by presenting a conceptual framework, including a definition of the potential successor. The findings indicate that family farming continues to be largely hereditary, and demonstrates how the occupancy of Hatherleigh and surrounding parishes has been shaped by traditions and expectations that socialised incumbent farmers into succeeding. Despite contemporary concern about the desirability of intergenerational farm transfer, participating farmers understood passing on the farm to a next generation as desirable. Many of whom framed their optimism in the context of the food security agenda and the anticipated opportunities for the industry. Drawing on in-depth interviews, this thesis questions the notion of the so called ‘succession crisis’, and identifies a number of positive adaptations and outcomes associated with successor identification which it discusses in the context of delivery of food security objectives. Two broad types of transfer of managerial control were identified and a typology is offered that suggests types of transfer are the product of potential successors’ ages and the subsequent nature of their upbringing. The thesis critically considers the types’ respective merits in the context of food security objectives and an original conceptualisation is offered as a contemporary way of understanding the types of transfer of managerial control in Hatherleigh and surrounding parishes. As well as influencing the transfer of managerial control, the study attributes significant differences in potential successors’ motivations according to the fundamental societal shift from a ‘society of duty’ to a ‘market place of opportunity’. Critically, the thesis revealed how, unlike their older counterparts, younger potential successors were motivated by the renaissance in agriculture, particularly elements such as the renewed public interest in, and respect for, farming as well as, opportunities farming for food security may offer. Overall, the thesis highlights the importance of considering the family farm and the influence of succession on the industry’s response to food security policy measures. It proposes that, at an aggregate level, ‘effective succession’, measured in terms of the identification of a successor and the timely and appropriate transfer of managerial control, are likely to be key factors in the delivery of food security objectives. It also recognises how succession and successor ‘creation’ are changing as society increasingly prioritises the individual and that the changing image of farming associated with the renaissance in agriculture is influencing younger potential successors. From these conclusions, suggestions are made for areas of further work, particularly with regard to understanding the implications of the different types of transfer of managerial control on long-term farm business performance, and some practical options for continuing to attract potential successors into the industry and facilitating effective intergenerational transfer are offered.

Magister Philosophiae (Land and Agrarian Studies) - MPhil(LAS) / For close to a decade, Zimbabwe has experienced a protracted socio-economic crisis. Although it is affecting both rural and urban areas, major forms of formal safety nets by the Government and Non-Governmental Organisations have been confined to rural areas. On the other hand the virtual collapse of the formal food marketing system in urban areas and the high formal unemployment rates have contributed to increased vulnerability of low income urban households to food insecurity. Using qualitative research methods, the study set out to understand livelihoods of low income urban households in Dzivaresekwa. In particular strategies low income households employ to cope with the negative macro-economic environment prevailing in Zimbabwe. / South Africa

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / Agriculture is the chief economic activity in many rural communities and women who make up the majority of the rural dwellers play a focal role in this sector. Despite efforts aimed at promoting women’s rights and ensuring gender equality in development, researchers have shown that women are still marginalised and have less access to productive resources needed for effective agricultural production. Using quantitative and qualitative research methodologies, the research investigated the nature and the extent of women’s participation in agricultural production at Marange Irrigation Scheme in Marange Communal Land, Zimbabwe. The participatory development theory was employed to guide the research. Data collection tools utilised in this study were a well structured questionnaire, semi-structured individual interviews and observation. Analysis of quantitative and qualitative data was done using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis respectively. The results of this study showed high level of women’s participation in most farm activities but low participation in extension programmes. The socio-economic variables considered for Pearson’s correlation tests – age, household income, education, land size and number of dependents – showed no significant relationship with the level to which women participate in agricultural activities. The findings of this study revealed that the key factors constraining women’s participation in agricultural activities were lack of capital, limited agricultural inputs, market constraints and water shortages. In addition, the research showed that farmers were not fully involved in every step of the irrigation development project. Consequently, women’s agricultural productivity was low and the sustainability of the project was uncertain. Despite these challenges, the results of this study revealed that participating in farming can instil a sense of ownership, enhance capacities and improve livelihoods. The level of women’s participation in farm decision-making was found to be high. This study advances that addressing women’s agricultural needs and improving their access to agricultural productive resources could result in effective participation of women in agriculture and meaningful agricultural productivity. In line with the participatory development theory, the study further contends that the full participation of women, as well as other intended beneficiaries, in the development process could be the key to sustainable rural development initiatives. This could help bring the much needed transformation in rural areas.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / The National Water Act of 1998 provides the policy framework for stakeholder participation and the engagement of stakeholders closest to the resource on which they depend to be involved in developing and managing their water resources. Rainwater harvesting presents a viable option for securing water availability in order to increase food production and cash returns from food in the Ehlanzeni District Municipality which is one of the poorest districts in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The study focuses on rural youth (between the ages 18-35 years) in two villages of the Ehlanzeni District, Luphisi and Dwaleni, and seeks to assess the relationship between youth capabilities and food security. The study used both quantitative and qualitative methods but with more emphasis on the quantitative data, with qualitative data providing anecdotal evidence to back up the findings. The qualitative data was collected from focus group discussions and the quantitative data was based on a baseline survey within the context of an Integrated Rain Water Harvesting Project implemented by a local NGO. The data drew on indicators in the questionnaire that were to do with social capital and empowerment. The indicators tapped into attributes/capabilities like trust, social cohesion and inclusion and sociability and examined these within the context of Amartya Sen's Capability Approach, to consider whether and in what ways these attributes relate to food security. The results show that there are youth have high levels of certain attributes/capabilities such as trust, social cohesion and inclusion, collective action and co-operation, self-esteem, and meaning. The findings also show that in other dimensions there are less opportunities and that, in particular, access to networks, access to knowledge and information and sociability are lacking among youth. Low levels of adherence to networks, lack of access to knowledge and information and poor sociability show that there are inadequate opportunities for youth to engage with issues around food and water security. The Chi-square test was used to investigate the relationship between youth capabilities and food security and at p<0.05 results showed that there was no relationship between youth capabilities and food security in Dwaleni. There were only three capabilities which showed any significant statistical relationship between youth capabilities and food security in Luphisi namely; collective action and co-operation, social cohesion and self-esteem. The study recommends that networking opportunities and access to information relating to food and water security should be improved. The thesis claims that there are adequate opportunities to build on existing capabilities such as self-esteem, trust and social cohesion that are not being maximized and that youth are not being adequately engaged in water resources management. / Water Research Commission

Numerous studies have been undertaken on the political economy of agricultural policies in developing countries. These studies have explained agricultural policies in terms of urban bias, economic reforms, and domestic politics. Recently, the emphasis has been on explanations that reference the existence of a rational-legal and patronage element within the African state. Such explanations tend to underplay the extent to which agricultural policies are devised in a context of power asymmetries between the state and international donors or financial institutions. In the Malawian context specifically, limited attention has been paid to the possibility that policies are a negotiated outcome of interactions informed by competing objectives at the state-donor interface. Accordingly, the proposed study will attempt to fill this existing gap in the literature. Malawi is currently at the center of policy debates regarding the state’s capacity to launch a uniquely African Green Revolution within a marketized and capitalist configuration. Such debates mark the continued underinvestment in agriculture on the African continent. The Malawi case, therefore, provides a unique opportunity to explore the extent to which state level efforts are either confounded or enabled by donors and international financial institutions. The specific successes and failures of the Malawi case speak to the question of how other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa might successfully address food production and food security issues. This dissertation will explore the overarching question of the role of the state and international donors in shaping agricultural and food security policies using Malawi’s farm input subsidy program as a case study. The main research methods to explore this question are qualitative, including interviews with various development stakeholders (government ministries, international development agencies, researchers from policy research and academic institutions, and civil society organizations) associated with agriculture and food policy-making, and textual analysis of publications associated with them. The research specifically targets key experts in the area of agriculture and food security. The findings indicate that policies have been greatly influenced by the competing ideologies of the state and donors, with each recognizing the problem but differing on the approach and modalities for solving food insecurity in Malawi. To this extent, there has been considerable inconsistency in policies with obvious negative outcomes. More recently, there has been an aligning of policy positions towards the use of social welfare programs and commercialization in addressing food insecurity. This alignment relates to policy positions on both the FISP and the configuration of the wider agricultural sector as manifest in the National Agricultural Policy, for example. The role of domestic politics vs. donors in policy processes has been in flux due to changes in the political and economic environment and configuration at specific junctures. The study also finds that evidence has been important in informing policy-making, more importantly, finance has had significant impact in attenuating the influence of domestic politics, so that the recently proposed and implemented reforms to FISP, although connected to considerable sociopolitical pressure from various quarters, have been largely precipitated by a serious fiscal crisis on the part of the government. To this extent, the state has assumed a pragmatic approach to policy-making i.e., one that is cognizant of the limitations imposed by finance and Malawi’s very harsh, challenging, and complex context.

This research focuses on the work of the Urban Aboriginal Community Kitchen Garden Project (the Garden Project). The Garden Project aims to be a culturally appropriate health promotion project with urban Aboriginal people, drawing on traditional Indigenous approaches to health and healing, and rooted in community food work. The project is situated within the context of colonialism, the destruction of traditional foodways, and subsequent increased need for Indigenous people to rely on a dominant food system that is seen as destructive to human and ecological health. The purpose of my research is to describe the Garden Project’s main goals and achievements from the perspective of project leaders, project participants as well as through my own observations and experiences. The research methodology was guided by participatory and community based approaches to research and qualitative methods were employed, focusing primarily on semi-structured interviews with project participants and project leaders. I also participated in and observed the project for two years, from September 2006-September 2008. Data collection and analysis happened through an iterative process of action and reflection. Based on my time with the Garden Project, I suggest that it can be seen simultaneously as a community food security, health promotion, and Indigenous health project. It connects participants with food as a natural product, builds skills around cooking and growing food, and increases knowledge about food system issues. Drawing on the health promotion discourse, it can be seen building community and social support networks, treating the whole person, and empowering participants to take actions around their own health needs. It is rooted in Indigenous approaches to health and healing in the way it promotes individuals’ physical, mental/emotional and spiritual health, the health of the community through cultural revitalization, and the health of the Universe through the opportunity it provides for awareness about ecosystem health. This research project was very site specific. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that food work with urban Indigenous people, carried out in a culturally sensitive manner, may be a powerful leverage point for promoting health with this population. These types of projects can also be vehicles for social change. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This study is an outcome and impact evaluation of Concern Worldwide (CW) community feeding program. Concern Worldwide conducted a community feeding program in Nyanga District in 2012. It was responding to the National Food Report (2011) issued by the government on the food shortages in Nyanga District. The feeding program supported Nyanga communities with nutritional supplements and food provisions to households. The goal of Concern Worldwide was to address the problems of hunger, household food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty which were affecting people in Nyanga. Four evaluation questions about program outcomes were used as a framework for the evaluation and included: How feasible are livelihood feeding schemes as methods of providing food safety net?; How are short-term emergency programmes converted into long term benefits for communities?; What are the interventions available in the program to ensure fulfilment of goals and community empowerment?; What lessons can be derived from the projects that can be used in future by Concern Worldwide and other NGOs involved in emergency and other developmental projects? For the purposes of the study three data sources were consulted. These included program documents, CW officials and beneficiaries. Data collection methods used included face to face interviews and both closed and open ended questionnaires. The qualitative data was analysed through content analysis and presented graphically and descriptively. The findings showed that the community feeding program made some impact through food provisions and agriculture inputs to the beneficiaries which was highly regarded and appreciated. It also managed to provide training on drought resistant crop farming and management of harvests. Monitoring and evaluation of the feeding program was identified as a critical tool in creating efficiency and accountability of the program. Although training was provided to all the beneficiaries, not all were directly involved in the daily routine activities of the program a goal that is not achievable in the context of community feeding program.

This study will examine the impacts of climate change on food security in Southern Ghana. Southern Ghana reveals that the district suffers post- harvest losses of about 8 percent of all cereals which hinders Ghana’s food security. Ghana still faces food insecurity due to high temperatures and low rainfall. This research therefore seeks to investigate what local communities of Southern Ghana are doing to address food insecurity problems with the advent of climate change. Several objectives to achieve this goal involves to identify factors hindering food security in Southern Ghana and to evaluate the extent that climate change has affected food security. A qualitative research approach was used by the researcher to come up with community strategies which this research seeks to address. Various conclusions such as community demand for support from the local government, sustainable irrigation programs, availability of pipe-borne water and environmental education were put in place, as possible solutions to the persisting food security problems in Southern Ghana.

This study used cross-sectional survey data to estimate farmers` perceptions of, and commonly cultivated ILVs, factors that influence the participation of smallholder famers in the production of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables and its contribution to household food security]. With regard to farmers` perceptions of ILVs, descriptive results reveal that a majority of the people from the study area share positive perceptions with respect to ILVs. Regression estimates for determinants of participation indicate that the production of ILVs is primarily conditioned by shared perceptions and institutional factors rather than the socio-economic attributes of farmers. Public policies that address the institutional framework (extension, credit, market and social networks) in favour of ILVs are more likely to promote production. Also, more research on the documentation and benefits of ILVs, supported by investments targeting educational campaigns towards promoting positive attitudes and dispelling fears and myths surrounding ILVs, will further promote production. With reference to the contribution of ILVs to food security, descriptive results indicate that participation in the production of ILVs leads to a higher HDDS and a lower HFIAS. Regression estimates further revealed that participation positively contributes to a higher HDDS and a lower HFIAS, suggesting that households who participate in the production of ILVs are more likely to be food secure than non-participants. Therefore, participation in the production of ILVs has significant potential to address household food security.