Thesis (Master of Engineering in Chemical Engineering)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. / Brewer’s spent grain (BSG), a solid residue obtained from brewing beer, is gaining attention in the food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industry due to its use as natural source of colorants, texturisers, functional ingredients and preservatives. It is therefore necessary to develop an economically viable method for the extraction, isolation or enrichment of these compounds. Although literature shows the technical feasibility of extraction of bioactive compounds from BSG at laboratory bench scale, none of the reviewed literature could provide adequate information necessary to determine the economic feasibility of the process at commercial scale. The aim of this study was to investigate the technical and economic viability of a commercial process for the recovery of antioxidant rich polyphenolic compounds from brewers spent grain using organic solvents and/or water. The objectives were to select the best solvent, perform the optimisation and kinetic study, as well as to model and simulate the extraction process with the aim of performing an economic analysis. In selecting the best solvent, maceration and soxhlet extraction were used for the recovery of polyphenolic compounds. Acetone and acetone: water mixtures, ethanol and ethanol: water mixtures as well as pure water were used as solvents. The evaluation of the best solvent was measured by the total phenolic content (TPC), flavonol content, the antioxidant activity using 2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. The study performed optimisation for various operational parameters (time, temperature, solvent to feed ratio and shaking speed) using response surface method. The effect of temperature on the extraction kinetics was also investigated with experiments being carried out at 20°C, 40°C and 80°C. Antioxidant activity was detected in all BSG extracts, but water showed the highest global yield and rates of extraction. The optimum conditions were found at 15 min reaction time, temperature of 40 °C, shaking speed of 185 rpm and solvent to solid ratio of 27.5: 1. So-Macdonald model was a suitable fit for the experimental data with a R2-value range of (0.85 < r2 < 0.995). A processing scenario was proposed as a base case, upon which subsequent scenarios were generated to improve the operation or the economics. SuperPro Designer® (Intelligen, Inc) was used for modelling the proposed process, for simulation and for the economic evaluation. Four alternative schemes from the base case simulation were developed for optimisation of the process. The process was found to be economically feasible and attractive with a return of investment (ROI) of 48.45 % for alternative scheme 4. The results in this thesis highlight the likely economic feasibility of the extraction of polyphenolic compounds from BSG at commercial scale by the maceration method.

In Hong Kong, around 3,600 tonnes of food waste is produced every day. Although different pilot schemes and programmes had been operated by government and organizations, most of them were more like demonstrations on different methods in treating food waste. Up to this stage, no concrete facilities and long-term schemes have been carried out by the government to tackle the food waste generated. In this study, different approaches to treat food waste have been explored and relevant practices in Hong Kong have been investigated. In order to obtain the first hand information from the local situation, 250, 11 and four sets of questionnaires were distributed to the general public, catering sectors and green groups and other NGOs respectively. The relationship between the knowledge and attitude of food waste management and demographics characteristics of the participants were studied. Apart from questionnaires, four interviews with green groups and NGO were conducted. The results showed that all three sectors support implementation of food waste management, and were not satisfied with the current status of food waste management in Hong Kong. Both the general public and the catering sector found “converting food waste to renewable energy” the most suitable practice for food waste management in Hong Kong, while “food waste charging scheme” gain most of the support from the green groups and NGOs. Recommendations were made according to the results of the questionnaires, interviews and literature reviews on successful overseas case studies. / published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

Thesis (Master of Engineering in Chemical Engineering)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. / Approximately 9 million tonnes of food waste is generated annually in South Africa. Its treatment, including treatment of confectionery waste, is costly because of the high chemical oxygen demand (COD) loads; as a result much of this waste is sent to landfill. South Africa’s confectionery industry contributes to a significant proportion of the country’s economy. Among the confectionery waste entering landfills are defective material, expired sweets and returns. This high COD waste can create breeding grounds for pathogenic microorganisms and anaerobic methanogens, causing negative environmental impacts. Part of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) Waste Research, Development and Innovation (RD&I) roadmap initiative is to minimise waste entering landfills by identifying waste sources from which to produce value that will contribute to social and economic growth. Confectionery waste has a high sugar content which can be used for feedstock to bioprocesses. By placing this bioproduction into a waste biorefinery framework, bio-based raw materials can be used to produce competitively priced products with low environmental impact, thereby optimising remediation and value generation simultaneously. Ongoing research at the Centre for Bioprocess Engineering Research (CeBER) at the University of Cape Town has shown that a wastewater biorefinery approach can use wastewater as feedstock for the generation of products of value. Previous studies have investigated potential products of value based on nutrient loads found in wastewater as well as the nature of the product. Among the organisms selected was the Bacillus species, producing the potential product poly-γ-glutamic acid (PGA), an extracellular poly-amino acid when there is an excess of nutrients. Similarly, this product could potentially be produced from sugar-rich waste candy. The aim of this study was to explore the use of hard candy waste as a feedstock for PGA, and Bacillus licheniformis JCM 2505 was selected as it was characterised in terms of the nutrients needed. The most attractive attribute of this strain was that it did not need L-glutamic acid to synthesise PGA but could do so from sugar. L-glutamic acid is costly. Using a cheaper nitrogen alternative would make the process more cost effective. To investigate this potential, the confectionery waste was characterised to identify the nutrients, namely, sugars, organic nitrogen and key trace elements needed for cell function and PGA production. Results showed that the nitrogen content and trace element concentrations were insignificant, as it was determined that the waste consisted mostly of sucrose. This therefore had to be supplemented with a basal medium containing the supplementation needed for cell function and PGA production. The growth of B. licheniformis was profiled in Erlenmeyer shake flasks using candy waste supplemented with the basal medium, with sucrose supplemented with basal medium as a control. The results showed similar trends on candy waste and sucrose.

Waste management is one of the key issues of sustainable development. In Hong Kong, there is food waste management measures but it seems that they have a fair share of limitations. The amount of food waste disposed rose from 3,154 tons in 2005 to 3,237 tons in 2010, which has not shown a significant reduction in volume in recent years. Businesses are becoming more aware of their corporate social responsibility and they definitely have a role to play in sustainable food waste management. Food waste management requires a large amount of resource input and infrastructural support, therefore a collaborative network between the government, businesses and social organizations will surely allows for better performance. The Food Waste Recycling Partnership Scheme (FWRPS) is chosen to be the subject of this case study. It is a partnership program aiming to tackle the food waste problem in Hong Kong’s private sector. A total of 18 companies are chosen as case subjects for the study and are divided into three groups: 1) the participants of the FWRPS; 2) the non-participants of the FWRPS but with self-initiatives for food waste management and 3) the companies without much food waste management initiatives. The three groups are then compared and contrasted upon the drivers, barriers to food waste management and the role of the FWRPS towards effective food waste management. Major factors are drawn from the study such as corporate leadership and resource availability. It is found that those driving and hindering factors varies as companies adopt different food waste management options. In creating these differences, the FWRPS also plays an important role. The scheme succeeded in facilitating food waste management in the private sector as it allows resource pooling and knowledge input. It also has limitations such as the small scale and the lack of promotion. Such partnership would be effective only if each partner is committed to work towards the same objectives. Also, the partners should have their own roles and shoulder their responsibilities. For example, the government should provide the required infrastructure while non-governmental organizations focus on environmental education. In the long run however, the private sector should tailor its own system of food waste management along with legislative support from the government. / published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

Food wastage is becoming a serious problem in Hong Kong. At present, Hong Kong relies simply on landfills to dispose of its waste. Nevertheless, such reliance is not sustainable. It may also lead to different social and environmental problems. With the primary aim to lessen environmental damage and achieve environmental sustainability, food waste recycling can save energy, conserve resources and prolong lifespan of landfills. Therefore, it is important to educate youngsters in order to develop their responsibility and habits in protecting the environment. It has been reported that recycling awareness should be instilled into people’s mind from their childhood. Through food waste recycling programmes held in schools, students can increase their awareness and knowledge in that aspect and develop skills for the solutions of environmental problems. On the other hand, such programmes would help reduce food waste at source and draw public attention to the food waste problem. The aims of this study focus on the introduction of a food waste management programme in a Hong Kong secondary school campus and exploring the feasibility and viability of extending it to other secondary schools in Hong Kong in order to minimize waste disposed to landfills. The study shows that the students may gain knowledge about food waste recycling through practical field experience by joining both of the Food Waste Recycling Programme and the Organic Farming Programme under the food waste management policies developed in the school. They allow students to engage more in recycling behavior and increase their awareness of food waste avoidance, reduction and recycling in their daily life. With the tripartite cooperation the Government, the participating schools and the secondary school students, the food waste management held in the school campus is feasible and viable to extend to other secondary schools in Hong Kong in order to lessen the pressure of local landfills. / published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

Microalgae have a variety of commercial applications, the oldest of which include utilisation as a food source and for use in wastewater treatment. These applications, however, are seldom combined due to toxicity concerns, for ethical reasons, and generally the requirement for cultivation of a single algae species for use as a feed supplement. These problems might be negated if a “safer” wastewater such as that from agricultural and/or commercial food production facilities were to be utilised and if a stable algae population can be maintained. In this investigation preliminary studies were carried out using an Integrated Algae Pond System (IAPS) for domestic wastewater treatment to determine the species composition in the associated High Rate Algae Ponds (HRAPs). The effect of different modes of operation, continuous versus batch, on nutrient removal, productivity and species composition was also investigated. Furthermore, indigenous species in the HRAP were isolated and molecularly identified as, Chlorella, Micractinium, Scenedesmus and Pediastrum. Additionally, the effect of the nor amino acid, 2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio)-butanoic acid (HMTBA) and its Cu-chelated derivative, on the growth and biochemical composition of Chlorella, Micractinium, Scenedesmus, Pediastrum and Spirulina was investigated. Species composition in the HRAP was stable under continuous operation with Micractinium dominating > 90% of the algae population. Under batch operation the population dynamic shifted; Chlorella outcompeted Micractinium possibly due to nutrient depletion and selective grazing pressures caused by proliferation of Daphnia. Higher species diversity was observed during batch mode as slower growing algae were able to establish in the HRAP. Nutrient removal efficiency and biomass productivity was higher in continuous mode, however lower nutrient levels were obtained in batch operation. HMTBA did not significantly affect growth rate, however treatment with 10 mg.L-1 resulted in slightly increased growth rate in Micractinium and increased final biomass concentrations in Chlorella, Micractinium and Spirulina (although this was not statistically significant for Micractinium and Spirulina), which are known mixotrophic species. Algae treated with Cu-HMTBA, showed reduced final biomass concentration with 10 mg.L-1, caused by Cu toxicity. Biochemical composition of the algae was species-specific and differed through the growth cycle, with high protein observed during early growth and high carbohydrate during late growth/early stationary phase. Additionally, 0.1 mg.L-1 HMTBA and Cu-HMTBA significantly reduced protein content in Chlorella, Micractinium, Scenedesmus and Pediastrum. In conclusion, operation of the HRAP in continuous culture provided suitable wastewater treatment with high productivity of an ideal species, Micractinium, for use in animal feed supplementation. This species had 40% protein content during growth (higher than the other species tested) and dominated the HRAP at > 90% of the algae population during continuous mode. Addition of HMTBA (> 1 mg.L-1) to algae cultivation systems and those treating wastewater, has the potential to improve productivity and the value of the biomass by enhancing protein content. Overall, the co-utilisation of microalgae for wastewater treatment and the generation of a biomass rich in protein, for incorporation into formulated animal feed supplements, represents a closed ecosystem which conserves nutrients and regenerates a most valuable resource, water.

M. Tech. (Department of Tourism and Integrated Communication, Faculty of Human Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / Background: Food waste in the foodservice units, which include supermarket kitchens, occur due to factors related to the menu such as the lack of careful menu planning, improper procurement of the menu items, lack of menu execution and improper practices during the distribution of meals. Also, improper refrigeration and storage facilities at optimal temperatures to maintain product’s shelf life contribute to food waste in foodservice units. Food waste management is a significant challenge globally and locally. Purpose of the study: To determine the knowledge on food waste and waste prevention practices of food handlers in supermarket kitchens in Soweto. Methods: A quantitative, descriptive research design was chosen to determine the knowledge and food waste prevention practices of food handlers. The population was 11 branches of supermarkets represented by one of the five largest franchise stores in South Africa with approximately 20 to 35 food handlers employed by each supermarket (± 220 total) as indicated by management. Only three supermarkets gave permission for the study. From the population, the survey system calculator was used to calculate the sample size (n=107). Purposive sampling was used to select the supermarkets and participants were conveniently sampled. A questionnaire based on reviewed literature was developed by the researcher to determine food handlers’ knowledge on food waste. An existing observation checklist was also amended for this study. Before the observations began, the researcher was alert about the reactivity problems. Data were collected during different times of the month, and the observations were conducted at different times of the day in each supermarket to measure the behaviour that was demonstrated by food handlers in the morning and in the afternoon. Collective instances of food waste practices were observed. For this study, descriptive statistics were used (SPSS version 27) to analyse the food waste knowledge of food handlers in supermarket kitchens. Presentation of the results was in the form of graphs, tables and charts. A frequency table was used. Results: The demographic profile of the participants indicated that many participants were women (60.7%) and 39.3% were men. The results suggest that to a larger extent, the food handlers have limited or insufficient knowledge on the customer’s profiles. The general food waste knowledge results was good. However only 47.7% of the respondents agreed that food waste can led to environmental damage. The majority of the responds (61.7%) strongly agreed that careful menu planning contributes towards preventing food waste. Food handles knowledge on food storage was good. Food preparation results reflected a good level of knowledge regarding the appropriate methods of food preparation to minimise food waste. Food handlers’ knowledge results revealed that participants had a moderate (45.4%) level of knowledge of green practices. There was a high level of knowledge on waste separation (82.3%). None of the supermarkets participated in any of the compositing activities to manage food waste. The observation results revealed poor waste prevention practices as influenced by the lack of menu planning. Lastly, menu planning results indicated that staff members recognise the importance of careful menu planning (61.7 percent strongly agreed) contributing towards preventing food waste. Factors and actions that were observed on food handler’s practices were mostly correct (56.7%) and 43.3 percent of the practices were lacking during food production in the kitchen. The results of the current waste prevention practices of food handlers in supermarkets revealed the necessity to develop food handlers’ guidelines. Conclusion and recommendations: It is evident that the supermarket food handlers may not be aware of the importance of a menu as a communication tool, which has a major influence on all the aspects of the foodservice unit including food waste prevention and management. Food handlers’ level of knowledge findings on food waste did not align with practices that were observed during meals production in supermarket kitchens. The level of food handlers’ knowledge and waste prevention practices has been determined and the guidelines on food waste prevention practices for this target group has been developed as the basis for further studies.

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Technology: Tourism and Hospitality Management in the Faculty of Business at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012 / The objective of the research study was to investigate how effective an eco initiative to recycle water and food waste would be when implemented in selected Cape Town hotels. Earthworm farms are able to convert organic food waste into usable compost as an alternative to landfills. Harvesting rainwater as a direct method for the reuse of waste water makes it possible to store captured rainwater for future use. This serves as an alternative source of surface water. The study further investigated whether implementing these initiatives would be successful as a future endeavour. Environmental movements were the instigators of the high demand for recycling initiatives. These movements aimed to address the deteriorating quality of water supplies, as well as growth in landfills. In South Africa, a decrease in the availability and quality of surface water has been coupled with an annual increase of 3.7 % in the demand for water. Landfills furthermore release toxic smoke when burned. Within the Hospitality Industry, travelers are increasingly seeking out environmentally friendly hotels as part of their corporate travel policy. This has occurred as a result of the increased focus on environmental initiatives by the International community. The researcher therefore aimed to provide practical examples of how existing theory regarding these initiatives is applicable to operations within hotels. The research methodology was determined through analysing the research strategy, the design and the research instruments. The research strategy was based on gathering facts relevant to the theory of the study. A descriptive approach was therefore adopted as the “-what-” question that was asked when measuring data to answer the research questions. The research design utilised a multi-strategy approach whereby both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered. This resulted in questionnaires, interviews and case studies forming part of the research instruments. The researcher found it effective to corroborate the findings from both quantitative and qualitative data: that is, the findings from the questionnaires were enhanced by the findings from the interviews. The case studies were conducted to provide a practical context to the theory. Recommendations have been made according to technological and social developments. Ultimately, this study illustrates the success of eco initiatives aimed at recycling water and food waste produced by selected hotels in Cape Town and a reduction in the waste generated by the hotels.

A degradação da qualidade da água pelo despejo de efluentes líquidos industriais, mesmo que tratados em algum grau, vem afetando a saúde dos organismos do meio aquático, inclusive podendo afetar a saúde dos seres humanos, caracterizando um problema ambiental de escala global. Os efluentes líquidos provenientes das indústrias alimentícias A e B, objeto do presente estudo, com reconhecido potencial genotóxico, são fortes contribuintes desse processo de degradação e mesmo assim, são somente fiscalizados através de analises físicas e químicas. Desta forma, o presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar o sistema de tratamento de efluentes líquidos de duas empresas de alimentos e seus efeitos genotóxicos em Astyanax sp (lambari). Os peixes foram expostos aos efluentes líquidos pré e pós-tratamento, bem como, a montante e a jusante do lançamento. A genotoxicidade foi avaliada segundo a técnica do ensaio cometa e teste do micronúcleo písceo. Foram analisados os parâmetros físicos, químicos e biológicos dos efluentes: temperatura, pH, oxigênio dissolvido, alcalinidade total, ácidos voláteis, DQO, DBO5,20, nitrogênio total, fósforo total e coliformes totais. Na análise genotóxica foram utilizados 600 exemplares de Astyanax sp, que foram expostos por 96 horas ao efluente bruto, pós tratamento, montante e jusante do corpo hídrico das duas indústrias. Os resultados obtidos através do presente estudo indicaram que em todas as amostras analisadas, inclusive no pós-tratamento e a jusante do lançamento, foram constatados danos estatisticamente significativos no material genético dos peixes analisados, com (p<0,0001). Os resultados evidenciaram que os efluentes líquidos das indústrias A e B avaliadas neste estudo, tem potencial genotóxico para causar danos aos organismos vivos presentes nos ecossistemas em que as mesmas estão inseridas. / The degradation of water quality by the discharge of industrial wastewater, even treated to some degree, has been affecting the health of aquatic organisms, including being able to affect the health of humans, featuring a global environmental problem. Liquid effluents from the food industries A and B, the object of this study with recognized genotoxic potential, are only monitored through physical and chemical analyses. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the treatment system of wastewater from two food companies and their genotoxic effects in Astyanax sp. Fish were exposed to wastewater pre and post treatment as well as upstream and downstream of the release. The genotoxicity was evaluated according to the technique of the comet assay and micronucleus test in piscine. Physical, chemical and biological parameters of: temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, volatile acids, COD, BOD5.20, total nitrogen, total phosphorus and coliforms were analyzed. Genotoxic analysis in 600 specimens of Astyanax sp, which exposed for 96 hours to raw wastewater, after treatment, and downstream water body in the two industries were used. The results obtained from this study indicated that in all samples, including post processing and downstream of the release, statistically significant damages were observed in the genetic material of the fish analyzed, with (p<0,0001). The results showed that the wastewater from industries A and B evaluated in this study, have genotoxic potential to cause harm to living organisms in the ecosystems in which they are embedded.

A degradação da qualidade da água pelo despejo de efluentes líquidos industriais, mesmo que tratados em algum grau, vem afetando a saúde dos organismos do meio aquático, inclusive podendo afetar a saúde dos seres humanos, caracterizando um problema ambiental de escala global. Os efluentes líquidos provenientes das indústrias alimentícias A e B, objeto do presente estudo, com reconhecido potencial genotóxico, são fortes contribuintes desse processo de degradação e mesmo assim, são somente fiscalizados através de analises físicas e químicas. Desta forma, o presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar o sistema de tratamento de efluentes líquidos de duas empresas de alimentos e seus efeitos genotóxicos em Astyanax sp (lambari). Os peixes foram expostos aos efluentes líquidos pré e pós-tratamento, bem como, a montante e a jusante do lançamento. A genotoxicidade foi avaliada segundo a técnica do ensaio cometa e teste do micronúcleo písceo. Foram analisados os parâmetros físicos, químicos e biológicos dos efluentes: temperatura, pH, oxigênio dissolvido, alcalinidade total, ácidos voláteis, DQO, DBO5,20, nitrogênio total, fósforo total e coliformes totais. Na análise genotóxica foram utilizados 600 exemplares de Astyanax sp, que foram expostos por 96 horas ao efluente bruto, pós tratamento, montante e jusante do corpo hídrico das duas indústrias. Os resultados obtidos através do presente estudo indicaram que em todas as amostras analisadas, inclusive no pós-tratamento e a jusante do lançamento, foram constatados danos estatisticamente significativos no material genético dos peixes analisados, com (p<0,0001). Os resultados evidenciaram que os efluentes líquidos das indústrias A e B avaliadas neste estudo, tem potencial genotóxico para causar danos aos organismos vivos presentes nos ecossistemas em que as mesmas estão inseridas. / The degradation of water quality by the discharge of industrial wastewater, even treated to some degree, has been affecting the health of aquatic organisms, including being able to affect the health of humans, featuring a global environmental problem. Liquid effluents from the food industries A and B, the object of this study with recognized genotoxic potential, are only monitored through physical and chemical analyses. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the treatment system of wastewater from two food companies and their genotoxic effects in Astyanax sp. Fish were exposed to wastewater pre and post treatment as well as upstream and downstream of the release. The genotoxicity was evaluated according to the technique of the comet assay and micronucleus test in piscine. Physical, chemical and biological parameters of: temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, volatile acids, COD, BOD5.20, total nitrogen, total phosphorus and coliforms were analyzed. Genotoxic analysis in 600 specimens of Astyanax sp, which exposed for 96 hours to raw wastewater, after treatment, and downstream water body in the two industries were used. The results obtained from this study indicated that in all samples, including post processing and downstream of the release, statistically significant damages were observed in the genetic material of the fish analyzed, with (p<0,0001). The results showed that the wastewater from industries A and B evaluated in this study, have genotoxic potential to cause harm to living organisms in the ecosystems in which they are embedded.