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A proposed Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) free zone, in the eastern region of Thailand, was evaluated by FMD experts with the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) during 2012-2013. The zone, however, did not qualify for an FMD-free zone with vaccination because it did not comply with the requirements in the OIE Terrestrial Code. Then, the Department of Livestock Development (DLD) within the government of Thailand revised laws and regulations related to the FMD control program in order to be in compliance with the OIE's requirements. The revised FMD control program has been implemented since 2015. These revisions and implementations, however, have not been evaluated. The main objectives of this study were to determine whether the revised regulations (since 2015) currently being implemented are fully in compliance with the OIE's requirements, and to verify whether the implementation of the current FMD control program is sufficient to control FMD effectively. First, this study developed an evaluation framework and assessment tools for use in the evaluation of the FMD control policies and their implementation in the eastern region of Thailand. The assessment tools include assessment matrices, three sets of questionnaires, and interview questions. When applied, the assessment matrices identify shortcomings of policy design, policy implementation, veterinary capacity, and stakeholder engagement. Questionnaires and interview questions collect information that examines the consistency of elements of the FMD control program against criteria in the assessment matrix. Then, the design of current FMD control policies was assessed by interviews of DLD officers at national level who formulate policies related to FMD control program and by reviews of DLD existing written policies and documents. This study found that the design of current FMD control system is appropriate and meets the OIE's requirements. Next, the implementation of the current FMD control program in the eastern region of Thailand was assessed. The assessment was conducted by (i) questionnaire surveys with DLD officers at local level, private veterinarians, and farmers, (ii) interviews with DLD officers at national and regional level and private veterinarians, and (iii) field observations. The assessment found that the current implementation of the FMD control program in the eastern region of Thailand needs further improvement in order to meet the OIE's requirements. This study also proposes recommendations to the DLD in improving the FMD control system in the eastern region of Thailand including surveillance system, reporting system, vaccine strategy, animal movement control system, and response plans. For example, there should be an increase of stakeholders' awareness of disease reporting requirements. Evidence of adequate vaccination coverage and population immunity should be available and accessible. Allocation of staff at local level should be reconsidered for more appropriate service deliveries. Communications between DLD and stakeholders regarding the FMD control program need to be strengthened for more effective message delivery. Lastly, this study strongly recommends that there should be strong commitments and supported by the higher level of the Thai's government. / Doctor of Philosophy / Foot and Mouth Disease is a highly contagious and the most economically important infectious viral disease of livestock. The disease exists in Thailand and interrupts livestock trade through the loss of access to international markets. The Department of Livestock Development (DLD) within the government of Thailand has proposed to make the eastern region of Thailand an officially recognized FMD-free zone with vaccination in order to advance market access and trade facilitation. In order to be an official FMD-free zone, the proposed FMD-free zone (eastern region of Thailand) needs to be evaluated by experts within the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) and must meet all requirements of the OIE standard for this certification. Since 2015, there has not been an evaluation to determine the effectiveness and appropriateness of the current FMD control program in the eastern region of Thailand. This study aims to evaluate the design and implementation of the current FMD control program in the eastern region of Thailand. This study, first, developed an evaluation framework and assessment tools for use in the evaluation of the FMD control policies and their implementation in the eastern region of Thailand. Then, the design of the current FMD control policies and their implementation were evaluated. The assessment found that the design of the current FMD control system is appropriate and meets the OIE's requirements. However, the current implementation of the FMD control program needs further improvement. This study also proposes recommendations to the DLD in order to enhance and improve the FMD control system in the eastern region of Thailand to be recognized as an FMD-free zone by the OIE.

published_or_final_version / abstract / Zoology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

A Leucose Enzoótica dos Bovinos (LEB) é uma enfermidade neoplásica, infectocontagiosa, pluri-sintomática, de evolução crônica, que compromete os órgãos linfopoiéticos e está associada ao desenvolvimento de linfocitose persistente (LP) e linfossarcoma. Acarreta diminuição na produção, quer por seus efeitos danosos diretos, quer pelos indiretos. No entanto, seu efeito na função e na quantidade das diferentes subpopulações de linfócitos, assim como seu papel no estabelecimento de outras doenças oportunistas, ainda não está claro. O presente estudo avaliou a resposta imunitária de bovinos da raça Holandês Preto e Branco naturalmente infectados pelo vírus da LEB (VLB), após desafio antigênico fornecido por vacinação contra o vírus da febre aftosa. Para tal, foram coletadas amostras sanguíneas antes do desafio e, após o desafio, semanalmente, por sete semanas, de dez vacas soropositivas, sem LP; de dez vacas soropositivas, manifestando LP; e de dez vacas soronegativas. Foram avaliadas as alterações quantitativas das diferentes subpopulações de leucócitos circulantes; a função dos linfócitos B, por meio da quantificação de diferentes isotipos de imunoglobulinas (Ig) séricas; os índices de proliferação linfocitária; os índices de morte celular por apoptose ou por necrose; e as concentrações séricas de interleucina-10 (IL-10), IL-12, inteferon- (IFN-&gamma;) e fator de necrose tumoral-&alpha; (TNF-&alpha;). Foi verificada a normalidade da distribuição dos resultados obtidos, utilizando-se do teste de Anderson-Darling, e sua homoscedasticidade, utilizando-se do teste F (para dados que apresentaram distribuição normal) ou do teste de Lavene (para dados que não apresentaram distribuição normal). Para a avaliação das diferenças entre as médias dos resultados obtidos, de acordo, respectivamente, com a ocorrência ou não de homoscedasticidade, foram feitos, para dados com distribuição normal, os testes de análise de variância (One-way ANOVA), seguida do teste de Tukey-Kramer ou o teste t; e, para dados que não apresentaram distribuição normal, o teste de Mann-Whitney ou o teste de Kruskal-Wallis. Para todos os resultados, foram consideradas significantes as análises que apresentaram p&le;0,05. Verificou-se que não houve diferença nas concentrações séricas de IgG1, de IgM e de IgA, tanto entre os tempos de coleta, quanto, a cada tempo, entre animais pertencentes aos diferentes grupos. As concentrações séricas de IgG2 aumentaram, após a vacinação, em todos os animais (p<0,05). Todavia, 17 dias após o desafio antigênico, as concentrações séricas de IgG2, em animais manifestando LP foram, a cada tempo de coleta, menores (p<0,01) que aquelas verificadas nos animais pertencentes aos demais grupos, indicando que animais com LP apresentam resposta humoral menos intensa e menos duradoura. Observou-se que ocorreu um aumento no índice de proliferação de linfócitos sanguíneos (p<0,01), 24 dias após a vacinação contra o vírus da febre aftosa, independente da presença de infecção pelo VLB. A partir deste momento, ocorre um aumento na porcentagem de linfócitos &gamma;&sigma; circulantes (p<0,05) e posterior diminuição nas concentrações séricas de IgG2 (p<0,05), indicando regulação desta resposta humoral por linfócitos &gamma;&sigma;. Em bovinos com LP, o aumento na porcentagem de linfócitos circulantes foi maior (p<0,05), ocasionando diminuição mais intensa e mais precoce nas concentrações séricas de IgG2. Constatou-se que a LP ocorre em decorrência de menor índice de apoptose, posto que as porcentagens de leucócitos sofrendo processo de apoptose foram menores (p&le;0,001) entre as células obtidas de animais manifestando LP, do naquelas coletadas dos animais pertencentes aos demais grupos. Verificou-se que as concentrações séricas das citocinas de perfil Th1, IL-12 e IFN-&gamma;, são maiores em amostras sangüíneas de animais infectados pelo VLB, alinfocitóticos (p<0,01), ao passo que as concentrações séricas das citocinas de perfil Th2, IL-10 e TNF-&alpha;, são maiores em amostras sangüíneas de animais infectados manifestando LP (p<0,01), indicando que alterações no perfil sérico de citocinas podem ser causa ou consequência da LP. Em resposta ao desafio vacinal, ocorre uma elevação nas concentrações séricas de IL-10 (p<0,01), de TNF-&alpha; (p=0,005) e de IFN-&gamma; (p<0,01), três dias após o desafio, e de IL-12 (p<0,001), dez dias após o desafio. A elevação na concentração sérica de IL-10 perdura até 31 dias após o desafio e pode ser responsável pelo maior índice de proliferação de linfócitos &gamma;&sigma; verificado a partir de 31 dias após a vacinação. Foi observado que a maioria dos linfócitos B circulantes, em bovinos, consiste de linfócitos B1 e, em animais infectados pelo VLB, a LP ocorre em decorrência de um aumento na porcentagem de linfócitos B1a (p<0,05). Além disso, em animais infectados pelo VLB, apresentando LP, as relações entre linfócitos T auxiliares e citotóxicos são menores (p<0,01) e a porcentagem de linfócitos &gamma;&sigma; é maior (p<0,01), indicando atividade viral nas células infectadas. Assim, os resultados permitem-nos concluir que animais infectados pelo VLB, manifestando LP, apresentam alterações na resposta imunitária frente vacinação contra o vírus da febre aftosa. / Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (EBL) is an infectious, multi-symptomatic, chronic, neoplastic disease, which undermines the lymphopoietic organs and is associated with the development of persistent lymphocytosis (PL) and lymphosarcoma. Infected animals present a decrease of production, either by its direct or its indirect harmful effects. However, its effect on the function and quantity of different lymphocyte subpopulations, as well as its role in the establishment of other opportunistic diseases, are unclear. This study evaluated the immune response of Holstein dairy cattle naturally infected with Bovine Leukosis Virus BLV, after antigen challenge provided by vaccination against foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus. To this end, blood samples were collected before challenge and after challenge, weekly, for seven weeks, from ten seropositive cows without PL, from ten seropositive cows expressing PL, and from ten seronegative cows. We evaluated the quantitative changes of different subpopulations of leukocytes; the function of B lymphocytes, through the quantification of different isotypes of immunoglobulins (Ig) serum concentration; the rate of lymphocyte proliferation; the rate of cell death by apoptosis or necrosis; and the serum concentrations of interleukin-10 (IL-10), IL-12, inteferon-&gamma; (IFN-&gamma;), and tumor necrosis factor-&alpha; (TNF-&alpha;). It was verified the normality of distribution of the results using the Anderson-Darling test, and their homoscedasticity, using the F test (for data with normal distribution) or the Levene test (for data without normal distribution). For the evaluation of differences between the average results, according respectively to the presence or absence of homoscedasticity, we used, for data with normal distribution, One-way ANOVA test, followed by the Tukey-Kramer test or the t test, and, for data without normal distribution, the Mann-Whitney test or the Kruskal-Wallis test. Results with p&le;0.05 were considered statistically significant. There were no differences related to serum IgG1, IgM, and IgA concentrations, both among sampling time and, every time, among animals belonging to different groups. IgG2 serum concentrations increased after vaccination in all animals (p<0.05). However, in animals expressing PL, each collection time, 17 days after antigen challenge, IgG2 serum concentration was lower (p<0.01) than those observed in animals belonging to other groups, indicating that animals with PL present less intense and less enduring humoral response. It was observed that there was an increase in the rate of lymphocyte proliferation (p<0.01) 24 days after vaccination against FMD virus, irrespective of the presence of infection by BLV. From this moment, there was an increase in the percentage of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes (p<0.05) and a subsequent decrease in serum IgG2 (p<0.05), indicating regulation of this humoral response by &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes. In cattle with PL, the increase in the percentage of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes was higher (p<0.05), leading to more intense and earlier decrease in IgG2 serum concentration. It was found that PL is due to a lower rate of apoptosis, since the percentage of leukocytes undergoing apoptosis was lower (p&le;0.001) among cells obtained from animals expressing PL, when compared to those collected from animals from the other groups. It was found that serum concentrations of Th1 cytokines, specifically IL-12 and IFN-&gamma;, were higher in blood samples from nonlymphocytotic infected animals (p<0.01), whereas serum concentrations of Th2 cytokines, particularly IL-10 and TNF-&alpha;, were higher in blood samples from infected animals expressing LP (p<0.01), indicating that changes in serum cytokines profile may be a cause or a consequence of PL. IL-10 (p<0.01), TNF-&alpha; (p=0.005), and IFN-&gamma; (p<0.01) serum concentrations increased three days after the challenge, and IL-12 serum concentration increased (p<0.001), ten days after the challenge. The increase in IL-10 serum concentration lasts until 31 days after the challenge and may account for the higher rate of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocyte proliferation found from 31 days after vaccination. It was observed that the majority of circulating B lymphocytes in cattle consists of B1 lymphocytes and that, in BLV-infected animals, PL occurs due to an increase in the percentage of B1a lymphocytes (p<0.05). Moreover, in lymphocytotic BLV-infected animals, the rate between helper and cytotoxic Tlymphocytes are smaller (p<0.01) and the percentage of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes is greater (p<0.01), indicating viral activity in infected cells. Thus, results allow us to conclude that lymphocytotic BLV-infected animals show changes in the immune response after vaccination against FMD virus.

Cette thèse porte sur l’analyse des apports des approches participatives épidémiologiques (PE) dans l’amélioration de la surveillance de la fièvre aphteuse (FA), en particulier dans l’implication des éleveurs à l’échelle locale. Le premier objectif était d’évaluer l’efficacité de la surveillance et de la vaccination contre la FA à l’échelle locale en utilisant PE. Le deuxième objectif était d’évaluer la faisabilité d’application des outils de PE pour améliorer l’implication des éleveurs dans la surveillance de la FA au Vietnam. Les méthodes de PE ont compris des entretiens informelles (en groupes ou individuels), des outils de notation (classement par paires, empilement proportionnel, matrice de notation), des outils de visualisation (cartographie, lignes de temps, diagramme d’écoulement) et d’outil sociologique appelée méthode Q. 122 entretiens en groupe, 467 entretiens individuels, 339 questionnaires ont été effectuées en 2014 et 2015. 409 sérums et 152 fluides d’oesophagiens ont été prélevées. Les enquêtes par questionnaire, les tests d’ELISA et de rtRT-PCR et la modélisation de Bayésienne ont été utilisées pour valider la performance de PE dans la surveillance de la FA. La maladie a été considérée comme la problème la plus importante dans la production animale. La FA était la maladie la plus importante pour la production laitière, suivie par la septicémie hémorragique. Pour la production de bovin de viande, elle a été enregistrée dans l'ordre inverse. La maladie la plus importante pour la production porcine était le syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin tandis que la FA était classé en quatrième. Les agriculteurs ont des capacités de diagnostic différentiel des maladies en fonction des symptômes cliniques. La prévalence sérique de la FA a été estimée à 23% pour la population 1 (proche la frontière du Cambodge) et 31% pour la population 2 (loin de la frontière du Cambodge), respectivement. La sensibilité et la spécificité de PE a été estimée à 59% et 81%, respectivement. La valeur prédictive positive et négative a été estimée à 48% et 86% pour la population 1 et 58% et 81% pour la population 2, respectivement. La présence du sérotype A, de la lignée A/Asia/Sea-97 et du sérotype O, lignées O/ME-SA/PanAsia et O/SEA/Mya-98 a soutenu la circulation du virus par des mouvements transfrontalières des animaux. Les fermes laitières ont appliquées la quarantaine, la désinfection et la vaccination comme méthodes de prévention. Les fermes de bovin de viande ont préférées la propreté et les bonnes pratiques de gestion de l'élevage. Les fermes porcines ont considérées que toutes les méthodes de prévention avaient la même importance. Trois discours «Croire», «Confiance», «Défi», représentés les perceptions communes des éleveurs et représentés 57,3% de la variance, ont été identifiés en utilisant méthode Q. Les éleveurs ont pris eux-mêmes les décisions de vaccination et se sont sentis plus en sécurité après la vaccination contre la FA. Cependant, une partie de la population étudiée n'a pas considérée la vaccination comme le premier choix de prévention. L'analyse de sensibilité de rapport de bénéfice-coût de la vaccination de la FA a montré que la vaccination était rentable pour tous les types de production, même si l'augmentation du coût de la vaccination et la diminution du prix de lait et de viande. 18 nouveaux villages sentinelles ont été identifiés comme potentiellement infectés par la FA. 77 animaux soupçonnés ont été confirmés positives avec la FA. La sensibilité et la spécificité de PE a été estimée à 0,75 et 0,65 respectivement. L'efficacité de PE pour détecter une épidémie de FA au Vietnam ont été démontrée. La vaccination a était montré la méthode la plus économique et la plus efficace pour prévenir la FA. Grâce à l'application des outils simples et adaptables qui facilitent la participation directe et active des éleveurs, PE permet d'obtenir une meilleure acceptabilité de la surveillance et des informations qualifiées. / This PhD thesis aimed at evaluating the contribution of participatory epidemiology (PE) to improve the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) surveillance and control activities, especially the involvement of farmers at local level. The first objective aimed at assessing the effectiveness of the FMD surveillance and vaccination strategy at local level by using PE approach. The second objective aimed at assessing the feasibility of applying PE tools to improve the involvement of farmers in the FMD surveillance in Vietnam. PE methods performed in our study included informal interviews (focus group and individual), scoring tools (pairwise ranking, proportional pilling, disease impact matrix scoring and disease signs matrix scoring), visualization tools (mapping, timeline, flow chart) and sociological tools called Q methodology. 122 focus groups, 467 individual interviews, 339 questionnaire surveys were performed during two field studies in 2014 and 2015. 409 sera and 152 probang samples were taken. Conventional questionnaire surveys, Bayesian modelling and laboratory test (ELISA and rtRT-PCR) was used to validate the performance of PE in FMD surveillance. Disease was considered as the most important issues in animal production. FMD was the most important disease for dairy cattle production, followed by haemorrhagic septicaemia. For beef cattle production, it was recorded in reverse order. The most important disease for pig production was porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome while FMD was ranked fourth. Farmers showed their abilities in differential diagnostic of important diseases based on its clinical symptoms. Sero-prevalence of FMD were estimated at 23% for population 1 (bordering with Cambodia) and 31% for population 2 (locating far from the border), respectively. Sensitivity and Specificity of PE were found to be 59% and 81%, respectively. The positive and negative predictive value were found to be 48% and 86% for population 1 and 58% and 81% for population 2, respectively. The presence of serotype A, lineage A/Asia/Sea-97 and serotype O with two separate lineages, O/ME-SA/PanAsia and O/SEA/Mya-98 supported virus circulation through trans-boundary animal movement activities. Dairy farms frequently applied quarantine, disinfection and vaccination as prevention methods. Beef farms preferred cleanliness and good husbandry management practices. Pig farms considered that all prevention methods had the same importance. Three distinct discourses “Believe”, “Confidence”, “Challenge”, representing common perceptions among farmers and accounting for 57.3 % of the variance, were identified based on Q methodology. Farmers take vaccination decisions themselves without being influenced by other stakeholders and feel more secure after FMD vaccination campaigns. However, part of the studied population did not consider vaccination to be the first choice of prevention strategy. The benefitcost ratio of FMD vaccination for dairy cow production in large-scale and in small-scale and meat cattle production were 37.2, 30.0 and 7.3, respectively. The sensibility analysis showed that FMD vaccination was profitable for all of production types even through the increase of vaccine cost and decrease of market price of milk and slaughter cattle. From the focus groups organized at sentinel villages, 18 new villages were identified as potentially infected by FMD. 77 suspected animals were confirmed positive for FMD, with viral serotypes O and A. Sensitivity and specificity of participatory surveillance were recorded at 0.75 and 0.65, respectively. The effectiveness of PE in FMD surveillance system to detect outbreak in Vietnam was demonstrated. It was demonstrated that vaccination was the most effective and economic method to prevent FMD. Through the application of simple, adaptive tools which facilitate direct and active participation of farmers, PE allowed to reach a better acceptability of surveillance and to obtain qualified information.

M. Tech. Veterinary Technology. / Aims of this study were to: determine the suitable buffers and optimal concentrations of these buffers, to be used in the ISA 206 B oil-based vaccine formulations that will ensure pH levels of &#x2265%x; 7.0; consistent emulsion type and particle sizes following a storage period of at least 24 months at 4 C ; determine the effects of temperature on the stability of the vaccine formulation during storage ; determine the optimal buffer antigen ratio in the water phase of the ISA 206 B oil-adjuvanted FMD vaccine containing SAT serotypes ; determine the effects of saponin (Q-Vac trade mark) on the buffering capacity during storage, in the ISA 206 B oil-adjuvanted FMD vaccine containing the SAT serotypes; and determine the shelf life of this improved (stabilised) oil vaccine. Previous research by the ARC scientists has shown that the immunity elicited by the ISA 206 oil adjuvanted vaccines could persist up to 50 weeks post vaccination in cattle (Cloete et al., 2008; Hunter, 1996). However, they did not show if this immunity was protective or not. Although it is known within the FMD field that sometimes immunity levels do not always translate into protection against an infection, if protection can be shown - even after vaccination using a stored vaccines - achievement of the above mentioned objectives could enable a once-a-year vaccination regimen in the control zone of RSA. Moreover, this once-a-year vaccination regimen could also substantially reduce the logistical costs involved during vaccination campaigns, compared to the current biannual vaccination regimen. Once the shelf life of the vaccine has been established, the vaccine could also be registered as a stock remedy under the Fertilisers, Farm Feed, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 36 of 1947, administered by DAFF. The registration of this vaccine could in turn enable the RSA to supply the vaccine to neighbouring South African Development Community (SADC) countries and the rest of African countries where the SAT serotypes occur.

M. Tech. Veterinary Technology. / Aims of this study were to: determine the suitable buffers and optimal concentrations of these buffers, to be used in the ISA 206 B oil-based vaccine formulations that will ensure pH levels of &#x2265%x; 7.0; consistent emulsion type and particle sizes following a storage period of at least 24 months at 4 C ; determine the effects of temperature on the stability of the vaccine formulation during storage ; determine the optimal buffer antigen ratio in the water phase of the ISA 206 B oil-adjuvanted FMD vaccine containing SAT serotypes ; determine the effects of saponin (Q-Vac trade mark) on the buffering capacity during storage, in the ISA 206 B oil-adjuvanted FMD vaccine containing the SAT serotypes; and determine the shelf life of this improved (stabilised) oil vaccine. Previous research by the ARC scientists has shown that the immunity elicited by the ISA 206 oil adjuvanted vaccines could persist up to 50 weeks post vaccination in cattle (Cloete et al., 2008; Hunter, 1996). However, they did not show if this immunity was protective or not. Although it is known within the FMD field that sometimes immunity levels do not always translate into protection against an infection, if protection can be shown - even after vaccination using a stored vaccines - achievement of the above mentioned objectives could enable a once-a-year vaccination regimen in the control zone of RSA. Moreover, this once-a-year vaccination regimen could also substantially reduce the logistical costs involved during vaccination campaigns, compared to the current biannual vaccination regimen. Once the shelf life of the vaccine has been established, the vaccine could also be registered as a stock remedy under the Fertilisers, Farm Feed, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act, 36 of 1947, administered by DAFF. The registration of this vaccine could in turn enable the RSA to supply the vaccine to neighbouring South African Development Community (SADC) countries and the rest of African countries where the SAT serotypes occur.

The introduction of FMD into the US would have serious economic and societal effects on the livelihoods and sustainability of affected livestock producers. Livestock producers serve as an important line of defense in both detecting an introduction of FMD as well, helping to prevent disease spread. However, due to the complexity of moral, social, and economic issues surrounding the control of highly contagious diseases, producer cooperation during an outbreak may not be assured. This study was conducted using a mixed-methods approach, including qualitative analysis of interviews and quantitative analysis of a postal survey, in order to explore the factors likely to influence producer cooperation in FMD detection and control in Texas. Reporting of cattle with clinical signs of FMD in the absence of an outbreak was related to producers´ beliefs about the consequences of reporting, beliefs about what other producers would do, trust in agricultural agencies, and their perception of the risk posed by FMD. During a hypothetical outbreak, intentions to report were determined by beliefs about the consequences of reporting, and perception of the risk posed by FMD. Intentions to gather and hold cattle when requested during an outbreak were determined by beliefs about the consequences of gathering and holding, beliefs about barriers to gathering and holding, trust in other producers, and perception of the risk posed by FMD. Compliance with animal movement restrictions was determined by experiential attitudes, beliefs about the availability of feed, space, and disinfection procedures, beliefs about what other producers would do, and perception of the risk posed by FMD. Recommendations for improving producer cooperation include targeting specific beliefs in both planning and communication, increasing transparency in the post-reporting process, planning for and communicating plans for maintaining business continuity in order to better inform risk perception, and partnering with organizations to ensure sustained and meaningful communication that supports trust between producers within the affected agricultural community.

A Leucose Enzoótica dos Bovinos (LEB) é uma enfermidade neoplásica, infectocontagiosa, pluri-sintomática, de evolução crônica, que compromete os órgãos linfopoiéticos e está associada ao desenvolvimento de linfocitose persistente (LP) e linfossarcoma. Acarreta diminuição na produção, quer por seus efeitos danosos diretos, quer pelos indiretos. No entanto, seu efeito na função e na quantidade das diferentes subpopulações de linfócitos, assim como seu papel no estabelecimento de outras doenças oportunistas, ainda não está claro. O presente estudo avaliou a resposta imunitária de bovinos da raça Holandês Preto e Branco naturalmente infectados pelo vírus da LEB (VLB), após desafio antigênico fornecido por vacinação contra o vírus da febre aftosa. Para tal, foram coletadas amostras sanguíneas antes do desafio e, após o desafio, semanalmente, por sete semanas, de dez vacas soropositivas, sem LP; de dez vacas soropositivas, manifestando LP; e de dez vacas soronegativas. Foram avaliadas as alterações quantitativas das diferentes subpopulações de leucócitos circulantes; a função dos linfócitos B, por meio da quantificação de diferentes isotipos de imunoglobulinas (Ig) séricas; os índices de proliferação linfocitária; os índices de morte celular por apoptose ou por necrose; e as concentrações séricas de interleucina-10 (IL-10), IL-12, inteferon- (IFN-&gamma;) e fator de necrose tumoral-&alpha; (TNF-&alpha;). Foi verificada a normalidade da distribuição dos resultados obtidos, utilizando-se do teste de Anderson-Darling, e sua homoscedasticidade, utilizando-se do teste F (para dados que apresentaram distribuição normal) ou do teste de Lavene (para dados que não apresentaram distribuição normal). Para a avaliação das diferenças entre as médias dos resultados obtidos, de acordo, respectivamente, com a ocorrência ou não de homoscedasticidade, foram feitos, para dados com distribuição normal, os testes de análise de variância (One-way ANOVA), seguida do teste de Tukey-Kramer ou o teste t; e, para dados que não apresentaram distribuição normal, o teste de Mann-Whitney ou o teste de Kruskal-Wallis. Para todos os resultados, foram consideradas significantes as análises que apresentaram p&le;0,05. Verificou-se que não houve diferença nas concentrações séricas de IgG1, de IgM e de IgA, tanto entre os tempos de coleta, quanto, a cada tempo, entre animais pertencentes aos diferentes grupos. As concentrações séricas de IgG2 aumentaram, após a vacinação, em todos os animais (p<0,05). Todavia, 17 dias após o desafio antigênico, as concentrações séricas de IgG2, em animais manifestando LP foram, a cada tempo de coleta, menores (p<0,01) que aquelas verificadas nos animais pertencentes aos demais grupos, indicando que animais com LP apresentam resposta humoral menos intensa e menos duradoura. Observou-se que ocorreu um aumento no índice de proliferação de linfócitos sanguíneos (p<0,01), 24 dias após a vacinação contra o vírus da febre aftosa, independente da presença de infecção pelo VLB. A partir deste momento, ocorre um aumento na porcentagem de linfócitos &gamma;&sigma; circulantes (p<0,05) e posterior diminuição nas concentrações séricas de IgG2 (p<0,05), indicando regulação desta resposta humoral por linfócitos &gamma;&sigma;. Em bovinos com LP, o aumento na porcentagem de linfócitos circulantes foi maior (p<0,05), ocasionando diminuição mais intensa e mais precoce nas concentrações séricas de IgG2. Constatou-se que a LP ocorre em decorrência de menor índice de apoptose, posto que as porcentagens de leucócitos sofrendo processo de apoptose foram menores (p&le;0,001) entre as células obtidas de animais manifestando LP, do naquelas coletadas dos animais pertencentes aos demais grupos. Verificou-se que as concentrações séricas das citocinas de perfil Th1, IL-12 e IFN-&gamma;, são maiores em amostras sangüíneas de animais infectados pelo VLB, alinfocitóticos (p<0,01), ao passo que as concentrações séricas das citocinas de perfil Th2, IL-10 e TNF-&alpha;, são maiores em amostras sangüíneas de animais infectados manifestando LP (p<0,01), indicando que alterações no perfil sérico de citocinas podem ser causa ou consequência da LP. Em resposta ao desafio vacinal, ocorre uma elevação nas concentrações séricas de IL-10 (p<0,01), de TNF-&alpha; (p=0,005) e de IFN-&gamma; (p<0,01), três dias após o desafio, e de IL-12 (p<0,001), dez dias após o desafio. A elevação na concentração sérica de IL-10 perdura até 31 dias após o desafio e pode ser responsável pelo maior índice de proliferação de linfócitos &gamma;&sigma; verificado a partir de 31 dias após a vacinação. Foi observado que a maioria dos linfócitos B circulantes, em bovinos, consiste de linfócitos B1 e, em animais infectados pelo VLB, a LP ocorre em decorrência de um aumento na porcentagem de linfócitos B1a (p<0,05). Além disso, em animais infectados pelo VLB, apresentando LP, as relações entre linfócitos T auxiliares e citotóxicos são menores (p<0,01) e a porcentagem de linfócitos &gamma;&sigma; é maior (p<0,01), indicando atividade viral nas células infectadas. Assim, os resultados permitem-nos concluir que animais infectados pelo VLB, manifestando LP, apresentam alterações na resposta imunitária frente vacinação contra o vírus da febre aftosa. / Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (EBL) is an infectious, multi-symptomatic, chronic, neoplastic disease, which undermines the lymphopoietic organs and is associated with the development of persistent lymphocytosis (PL) and lymphosarcoma. Infected animals present a decrease of production, either by its direct or its indirect harmful effects. However, its effect on the function and quantity of different lymphocyte subpopulations, as well as its role in the establishment of other opportunistic diseases, are unclear. This study evaluated the immune response of Holstein dairy cattle naturally infected with Bovine Leukosis Virus BLV, after antigen challenge provided by vaccination against foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus. To this end, blood samples were collected before challenge and after challenge, weekly, for seven weeks, from ten seropositive cows without PL, from ten seropositive cows expressing PL, and from ten seronegative cows. We evaluated the quantitative changes of different subpopulations of leukocytes; the function of B lymphocytes, through the quantification of different isotypes of immunoglobulins (Ig) serum concentration; the rate of lymphocyte proliferation; the rate of cell death by apoptosis or necrosis; and the serum concentrations of interleukin-10 (IL-10), IL-12, inteferon-&gamma; (IFN-&gamma;), and tumor necrosis factor-&alpha; (TNF-&alpha;). It was verified the normality of distribution of the results using the Anderson-Darling test, and their homoscedasticity, using the F test (for data with normal distribution) or the Levene test (for data without normal distribution). For the evaluation of differences between the average results, according respectively to the presence or absence of homoscedasticity, we used, for data with normal distribution, One-way ANOVA test, followed by the Tukey-Kramer test or the t test, and, for data without normal distribution, the Mann-Whitney test or the Kruskal-Wallis test. Results with p&le;0.05 were considered statistically significant. There were no differences related to serum IgG1, IgM, and IgA concentrations, both among sampling time and, every time, among animals belonging to different groups. IgG2 serum concentrations increased after vaccination in all animals (p<0.05). However, in animals expressing PL, each collection time, 17 days after antigen challenge, IgG2 serum concentration was lower (p<0.01) than those observed in animals belonging to other groups, indicating that animals with PL present less intense and less enduring humoral response. It was observed that there was an increase in the rate of lymphocyte proliferation (p<0.01) 24 days after vaccination against FMD virus, irrespective of the presence of infection by BLV. From this moment, there was an increase in the percentage of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes (p<0.05) and a subsequent decrease in serum IgG2 (p<0.05), indicating regulation of this humoral response by &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes. In cattle with PL, the increase in the percentage of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes was higher (p<0.05), leading to more intense and earlier decrease in IgG2 serum concentration. It was found that PL is due to a lower rate of apoptosis, since the percentage of leukocytes undergoing apoptosis was lower (p&le;0.001) among cells obtained from animals expressing PL, when compared to those collected from animals from the other groups. It was found that serum concentrations of Th1 cytokines, specifically IL-12 and IFN-&gamma;, were higher in blood samples from nonlymphocytotic infected animals (p<0.01), whereas serum concentrations of Th2 cytokines, particularly IL-10 and TNF-&alpha;, were higher in blood samples from infected animals expressing LP (p<0.01), indicating that changes in serum cytokines profile may be a cause or a consequence of PL. IL-10 (p<0.01), TNF-&alpha; (p=0.005), and IFN-&gamma; (p<0.01) serum concentrations increased three days after the challenge, and IL-12 serum concentration increased (p<0.001), ten days after the challenge. The increase in IL-10 serum concentration lasts until 31 days after the challenge and may account for the higher rate of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocyte proliferation found from 31 days after vaccination. It was observed that the majority of circulating B lymphocytes in cattle consists of B1 lymphocytes and that, in BLV-infected animals, PL occurs due to an increase in the percentage of B1a lymphocytes (p<0.05). Moreover, in lymphocytotic BLV-infected animals, the rate between helper and cytotoxic Tlymphocytes are smaller (p<0.01) and the percentage of &gamma;&sigma;-lymphocytes is greater (p<0.01), indicating viral activity in infected cells. Thus, results allow us to conclude that lymphocytotic BLV-infected animals show changes in the immune response after vaccination against FMD virus.

Ce travail a analysé tous les cas de HFMD déclarés à Hai Phong pendant l’épidémie de 2011 et 2012 qui a été la plus importante au Vietnam et la première enregistrée dans le nord du pays. Hai Phong a connu la plus forte incidence au Nord Vietnam. C’était donc un bon modèle pour étudier la dynamique de cette maladie sans interférence et reliquats de précédentes épidémies ou de patients immunoadaptés.La première section est consacrée à une revue de la littérature sur EV-A71 et les entérovirus. La seconde section est divisée en trois chapitres, chacun abordant un aspect spécifique du projet.Le premier chapitre aborde la dynamique de la maladie et le rôle des directives officielles pour la gestion de l’épidémie de 2011-2012. Outre les éléments de base, cette étude apporte des résultats sur l’influence des directives HFMD durant l’épidémie, ce qui n’avait pas encore été fait. La publication des directives a conduit à un accroissement du score de sévérité et d’une réduction du délai entre le premier pic de fièvre et l’admission. Cet effet est associé à un accroissement de la sensibilisation qui a conduit à déclarer la plupart des patients avec des symptômes sévères pour assurer de meilleurs traitements et suivis. Le travail décrit dans ce chapitre a aussi démontré que trois vagues avec des caractéristiques différentes et causées par trois virus différents s’étaient succédées. La vague 1 et la vague 3 ont été causées respectivement par EV-A71 et par une combinaison de CV-A6 et CV-A16 alors que la vague 2 a été causée par un virus inconnu. Ce travail est aussi une analyse intégrative incluant une analyse spatiotemporelle. La maladie semble s’être étendue vers l’est en suivant les rivières pour atteindre les des zones plus peuplées à partir desquelles elle s’est répandue par les routes secondaires locales. Etant donné l’âge moyen des patients, environ 2 ans, la source de contamination doit être cherchée chez les adultes asymptomatiques contaminés lors de leurs activités professionnelles et des mobilités locales.Le deuxième chapitre aborde la phylogénie et la distribution spatiotemporelle de EV-A71 dans le nord du Vietnam et apporte un éclairage sur l’évolution et la dynamique de cet entérovirus. La protéine de capside VP1 a été ciblée. La première conclusion de ce chapitre est que l’épidémie de 2011 et 2012 n’a pas été causée par une souche exogène mais par des souches d’EV-A71 déjà présentes au Nord Vietnam. Ceci indique qu’elles peuvent se maintenir à faible niveau, asymptomatique, en stase génomique et avec une structuration géographique. La cause de l’épidémie devrait donc être recherchée dans le tissu socio-économique plutôt que dans une émergence extérieure. Une autre conclusion de ce chapitre est la corrélation observée ente les groupes de variants I/V et phylogénie, pathogénicité et groupe ethnique. Les profils des mutations I/V aux positions 249, 262 et 284 sur la protéine VP1 pourraient jouer un rôle dans la pathogénicité, ce qui est appuyé par la corrélation entre variants I/V et sévérité/ethnicité.Le dernier chapitre aborde la modélisation mathématique d’une maladie multiphases telle que HFMD. Il est essentiel de détecter aussi tôt que possible une nouvelle vague associée à un nouvel agent. Grace à la grande taille de la cohorte disponible pour ce travail (environ 9000 patients), nous avons pu développer un système d’équations différentielles apportant une forte correspondance avec les données observées. Le modèle a confirmé l’existence de trois vagues en 2011-2012, ayant des niveaux de virulence différents. Il permet aussi de caractériser chaque vague, de détecter l’apparition d’une nouvelle vague et d’associer des groupes patients à un tableau clinique.En conclusion, ce travail de thèse a permis de souligner plusieurs éléments clés à aborder de façon coordonnée afin de faciliter une surveillance efficace de l’HFMD au Vietnam. / This work analyzed all HFMD cases reported in Hai Phong in 2011 and 2012 outbreak which was the largest to have ever occurred in Vietnam and the first recorded in the northern part of the country. Hai Phong city experienced the highest HFMD incidence in North Vietnam. It was thus a good model for investigating the dynamic of the disease without interference and potential remains from previous outbreaks or patient immunological adaptation.The first section is dedicated to a review of the literature on EV-A71 and enteroviruses. The second section is divided in three chapters, each one addressing a specific issue of the project.The first chapter addresses the dynamic of the disease and the role of official guidelines in the handling of the 2011-2012 epidemic. Beside basic epidemiological features, the study also provides findings relating to the influence of HFMD guidelines during the outbreak period that has never been described before. The guideline release led to a significant increase of the severity score and reduced delay between onset and admission. This effect is linked to an increased awareness leading to patients being mostly declared with severe symptoms in order to ensure a better treatment and surveillance. The work presented in this chapter also demonstrated that three waves occurred with different characteristics and caused by three different viruses. Wave 1 and wave 3 were caused by EV-A71 and a combination of CV-A6 and CV-A16, respectively while Wave 2 was caused by an unknown virus. This work is also an integrative analysis including a spatiotemporal analysis. The disease seems to have expanded following the eastbound river system to reach densely populated settlements from where it secondarily expanded through local roads. Owing to the average age of the patients, around 2, the source of contamination must be sought for within asymptomatic adults being contaminated during their occupational activities and in local movements.The second chapter addresses the phylogeny and spatiotemporal distribution of EV-A71 in North Vietnam and provides an insight on the evolution and dynamic of the EV-A71 enterovirus. The VP1 capsid protein was used as target. The first conclusion of this chapter is that the 2011-2012 outbreak was not caused by an incoming strain but by EV-A71 strains which were already present in North Vietnam. This indicates that they can remain in a low level, asymptomatic state, in genomic stasis and with a geographic structuration. The cause for outbreaks should thus be sought for in the socio-economic patterns rather than in exogenous emergence. Another outcome of this chapter is the observed correlation between I/V variant groups and phylogeny, pathogenicity and ethnicity. The I/V pattern at positions 249, 262 and 284 on the VP1 protein might play a role in pathogenicity. The observed correlation of the I/V variant populations with severity and ethnicity strengthen this hypothesis.The last chapter addresses the mathematical modelling of a multiphase disease such as HFMD. It is essential to detect as soon as possible the emergence of new wave, associated to a novel agent. Owing to the large size of the cohort available for this work (ca. 9000 patients), we have been able to develop a differential equation model providing a very high fit with the observed data. The model confirmed that three waves were present in 2011-2012 with differing virulence. It also allows to characterize each wave, detect the start of a new one and associate groups of patients with specific patterns of symptoms.As a conclusion, this PhD work as underlined some key issues to be addressed in a coordinated way in order help developing an efficient surveillance and monitoring system for HFMD in Vietnam.