Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007. / Vita. Appendices: leaves 71-84. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 85- 88).

Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University--San Marcos, 2009. / Vita. Appendix: leaves [32]-47. Reproduction permission applies to print copy: Blanket permission granted per author to reproduce. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [48]-51). Also available on microfilm.

Drug abuse has always been a world problem. Recently people abuse both controlled and prescribed drugs. Opioids, cocaine, cannabis and amphetamines are the most widely abused drugs. The picture of the drug abuse problem in Scotland can be understood by an extensive study of drug prevalence and characteristics of drug use in the region. In drug-related deaths, post-mortem analysis, which includes autopsy and collecting samples for histological and toxicological analysis, is necessary to be carried out to investigate whether any drug has contributed to the cause of death. The samples which are commonly collected for toxicological analysis are blood and urine. However, when those fluids are not available, body tissues may be taken as alternative samples, such as liver and skeletal muscle. In this case, it is necessary to understand how drugs move and diffuse to these tissues after death. This phenomenon, which is known as post-mortem redistribution, may cause difficulties in the interpretation of post-mortem drug concentrations. Several studies have tried to investigate post- mortem redistribution including how drugs diffuse in the body after death. However, post-mortem redistribution is still not completely understood. This study proceeded by interrogating post-mortem data within the period of 2011-2016 held by Forensic Medicine and Science (FMS), University of Glasgow to review trends of drug-related death in the West of Scotland in which amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), cocaine and opioids were detected. Opioids were most commonly detected (81.9%) in drug-related deaths in the West of Scotland, followed by cocaine (21.6%) and ATS (9.4%). The interrogation of post- mortem data within the period of 2007-2016 was also carried out to understand certain pathological conditions which are caused by drug abuse. From the results, it is clear that in the West of Scotland people tend to abuse multiple drugs. This trend may apply in the other part of the country and around the world. It is also clear that, even though methadone was prescribed to assist users to stop from drug addiction, especially heroin, many methadone users still abuse other drugs, as methadone was found in most of the cases in addition to other drugs. For this reason, it is important to investigate the results of drug addiction therapy and educate potential users. Subsequently, methods were adapted for analysing liver and muscle samples from the FMS in-house methods for analysing ATS and basic drugs in autopsy blood and validated according to the standard practices for method validation in forensic toxicology (SWGTOX, May 2013). All ATS drugs (amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDA, PMA, PMMA, MDMA and MDEA) and basic drugs (amitriptyline, citalopram, methadone, mirtazapine, sertraline and tramadol) gave acceptable bias, precision, linearity, recovery and stability for analysing liver and muscle samples. An experimental model for drug diffusion in tissues was studied to simulate and understand drug diffusion in humans. The diffusion rate that was used in this model is in accordance with the volume of distribution of each drug. This model is easy and simple to be carried out in any small laboratory. Blood, liver and muscle samples were analysed from 10 cases collected during the period from August 2016 to April 2017 after the next of kin signed the informed consent forms. Four basic drugs (amitriptyline, methadone, mirtazapine and sertraline) were found in 9 cases and analysed to investigate the ratios between blood, muscle, right liver and left liver. The ratios of drug concentrations of muscle:blood, left liver:right liver were found to be lower than 2. As a result, drug concentrations in muscle can be reliable for toxicological interpretation when blood is not available. The ratio of drug concentration in liver and blood has been suggested as a marker of post-mortem redistribution(1) and this study has shown that the ratio of drug concentration in liver and muscle can also be diagnostic in cases where blood is not available.

This project examined the differences in skeletal preservation from several mound sites in the West Central Illinois Valley, spanning the Late Archaic to Late Woodland periods, from approximately 2500 B.C to A.D. 1000: Koster Mounds, containing Early Archaic to Middle Archaic burials from approximately 8700 B.C. to 800 B.C.; Peisker Mounds, containing Early Woodland burials from approximately 625 B.C. to 230 B.C.; Gibson Mounds, containing Archaic, Hopewell, and Late Woodland burials starting 50 B.C. to A.D. 400; and Helton Mounds, containing Late Woodland burials from approximately A.D. 830 to A.D. 1200. The intrinsic factors of bone density and age and sex of the individual were compared statistically with bone inventories and osseous taphonomic conditions to determine if these factors affected preservation. Based on extant inventories each skeleton was scored on the percent of standard measurements possible to take, 24 cranial, 10 mandibular, and 44 postcranial measurements, following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), as a proxy for individual element completeness for major portions of the skeleton. Additionally, this project examined more specifically the preservation of the os coxa. The five commonly used areas for sexing (the ventral arc, subpubic concavity, ischiopubic ramus ridge, greater sciatic notch, and preauricular sulcus), following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Phenice (1969), were examined and scored independently. Three commonly used areas for aging (the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, and acetabulum) following Brooks and Suchey (1990), Phenice (1969) and Calce (2012) were examined and scored independently. Soil samples were collected from two sites and analyzed to determine if soil pH affects the preservation rates of skeletons differently. To assess the amount of data lost in older skeletal assemblages the author tested the hypotheses that (1) denser skeletal portions are most likely to be well-preserved, (2) mature adult males are more likely to be well-preserved than mature adult females, (3) mature adults will be more well-preserved than the remains of juveniles and old adults, and (4) skeletons from more recent time periods will be more well-preserved than skeletons from earlier time periods. The results of the study show, that while there are many factors that influence preservation of skeletal assemblages in the archaeological record, certain factors are more important than others when it comes to skewing the archaeological record. Sex of the individual does not appear significantly to affect the rate of preservation, while age at death and duration of burial, especially when looking at infants compared to adults and individuals buried during the Archaic period compared to individuals buried during the Middle and Late Woodland period, do affect preservation.

A primary goal of the forensic anthropologist is assisting in the estimation of a post-mortem interval. This assessment is largely based upon the degree and quality of soft tissue decomposition, influenced by factors including temperature, humidity, insect activity, carnivore and rodent activity, perimortem trauma and the depositional environment. While the effects of temperature on decomposition have been long appreciated and initially studied, little or no research has been conducted on the disruption of insect activity and how that disturbance may affect the decomposition process. This study was designed to determine if the exposure of skin surface of porcine remains to insect repellant (specifically, DEET) has an effect on the presence and overall activity of insects during decomposition. Two experiments were conducted in the spring and fall with results indicating that insect repellant slows the rate of decomposition. Such findings are important for criminal investigators requiring an accurate estimation of post-mortem time to appreciate those factors that may adversely affect the process and rate of soft tissue deterioration.

Thesis (M.S.F.S.) / Swabs are an integral part of any forensic science “toolkit”. They can be used to gather many types of evidence at crime scenes, in the lab, or even in the hospital or morgue. Cotton swabs have been the traditional choice for most forensic laboratories, and for sexual assault kits. They have been the obvious choice for decades as cotton swabs were really the only option and they were and still are relatively inexpensive and easy to obtain. In the past dozen years or so, new synthetic fibers have been incorporated into novel swab designs. Fiber swabs can be made of polyester or rayon, polyurethane foam swabs can be round, narrow, oval or arrow shaped; swabs can also be flocked, or sprayed with strands of material such as nylon. The effectiveness of any type of swab used to collect biological material is based on three characteristics: the ability to pick up the material for which they are designed, the ability to hold that material until processed and then the ability to release as much of that material as possible to be analyzed in the lab. In this study, the efficacy of four different commercially available swabs to collect, store and release spermatozoa was evaluated. Puritan Cotton fiber swabs, Fisher Polyester fiber swabs, Fisher polyurethane swabs, and Copan nylon flocked swabs were all compared for their ability to pick-up and elute cells from solid surfaces. The surfaces included three types of commonly found tile: a smooth glossy ceramic tile, a rough non-porous ceramic tile, and a smooth semi-porous quarry tile. In general, polyester fiber swabs outperformed both the polyurethane foam and the nylon flocked swab when used on all three surfaces (P < 0.05). Polyester swabs were not significantly different from the cotton fiber swabs even though the average number of cells picked-up and eluted was higher overall. Swabs used to collect postcoital samples were also compared. Volunteer couples were given a variety of swabs to use after intercourse. The result of the comparison for the same four swab types when used as postcoital swabs was different from the results of the tile study. After estimating the number of cells collected and released from each swab, a comparison was made within each couple. Nylon flocked swabs yielded the highest level of cellular material overall and foam swabs recovered the least. This study demonstrates the need for further research into different swab types and in what capacities they are to be used in forensic science.

Thesis (M.S.F.S.) / Positive identification of skeletonized human remains is a difficult task when dental records and/or DNA are unavailable. Through archaeological research, strontium (Sr) isotope analysis has successfully been used to trace an individual back to their place of birth using cortical bone and tooth enamel. This method has the potential, in forensic anthropological science, to help narrow down the search for missing persons to a specific geographical location. It has not been tested thoroughly on modern populations though, which is needed before applying in a forensic setting. This study used dental enamel from teeth of 78 individuals in the New England region of the United States (U.S.). The birthplaces represented by these individuals include New England and the greater Northeast of the U.S., Northwest region of the U.S., Central America, Caribbean Islands, West Africa, and Europe. Local faunal and water samples were also collected for local range comparisons. The samples were cleaned, approximately 10 mg of enamel removed from each tooth, acid washed, dried, and dissolved in nitric acid before analyzing the samples using a thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS) for analysis of 87Sr/86Sr ratios. The human 87Sr/86Sr ratios were grouped by geographical region. An analysis of variance was used to test for regional variation and significant differences were found. The samples from the U.S. (excluding those from the Northwest) were significantly different from the samples in Central America, Caribbean Islands, West Africa, and Europe. Central American samples were also significantly different from the other groups. No significant differences were observed between the Caribbean Islands, West Africa and Europe. A significant difference was seen between the strontium ratios in the West Africa group based on bottled water vs. tap water that individuals reported drinking. The faunal samples from Pembroke, MA and water sample from Braintree, MA were not significantly different from the New England human samples, but the Brighton, MA water sample was significantly different. Based on the data, regional differences in 87Sr/86Sr ratios are detectable using strontium isotope analysis, yet a larger sample size for each of the regions is needed to strengthen the statistical results. The results suggest that the differences observed are due to a combination of geological effects and influences from the globalization of food. Further research is warranted by combining the analysis of hydrogen (δ2H) and oxygen (δ18O) isotopes to the strontium analysis. This will complement the strontium data by providing more insight to the local drinking water and potential effects of an increasingly homogenous diet within cultural regions.

Thesis (M.S.F.S.) PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / This thesis looks at and analyzes the current body of research into the early-stage formation of adipocere as it pertains to post-mortem interval determination. Adipocere is a waxlike substance that can encase bodies after death if certain conditions are met: temperature, moisture content, other environmental factors, and the presence of bacteria that transform fatty acids into the hydroxy- and oxy-fatty acids that make up much of the adipocere substance. Adipocere formation arrests the process of decomposition, making it difficult for forensic pathologists to determine a post-mortem interval. The thesis identifies several issues with current research into early-stage adipocere. Firstly, the majority of scientific papers on the subject make use of pig adipose as a stand-in for human adipose due to ethical concerns. However, this traditional forensic method is not suited for studies into adipocere formation: the fatty acid profiles of pigs and humans have differing ratios of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, making them an unreliable analog for adipocere testing. In addition, most studies assume a three-month timeframe for the formation process when preparing their experimental design, a timeframe thrown into question by both current data and several existing case studies demonstrating more rapid adipocere formation. Lastly, testing takes place in static environments, which does not reflect actual field conditions. There have been cases that suggest adipocere formation ceases during colder months once decomposition has initially halted. In these cases, the adipocere formation begins again once temperatures return to 22°C or higher. Another issue noted is the lack of chemical analysis conducted on early-formation adipocere. The changes in fatty acid ratios that take place during the process are not typically looked at by scientists investigating the phenomenon or forensic pathologists dealing with adipocere cases, but may offer a viable means of narrowing down post-mortem intervals and contribute to better timelines for pathologists and law enforcement. This thesis ultimately recommends a number of additional research directions necessary for building a temperature zone-based database of case and laboratory results, particularly ones that take into account the variable formation timeframe observed in previous experiments and case studies. / 2031-01-01

The present research examined the features that may differentiate cuts made in bone by mechanical and hand-powered saws, specifically investigating the characteristics of commercially available reciprocating saws. The partial limbs of adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were used as a proxy for human remains, and were cut using five commercially available reciprocating saw blades and a hand-powered hacksaw. The reciprocating blades tested ranged from five teeth-per-inch to 14/18 teeth-per-inch and included raker, alternating, and wavy tooth sets. The hacksaw blade had 32 teeth-per-inch, with wavy set teeth. All the blades examined were intended to cut wood, metal, or both materials. The resulting false start kerfs and complete kerfs on the remains were then examined macroscopically and microscopically. The present study utilized both qualitative and quantitative analysis to examine kerf features that characterize reciprocating saws. The presentation of specific features within the kerf varied based upon blade properties, how the implement was powered, and how it was wielded in reference to the material. The results of the present study demonstrated that significant differences do exist between reciprocating saw blades. Kerf characteristics in which significant differences were noted include: kerf false start (cross section) shape, frequency of cut surface drift, presence of harmonics, striation regularity, and exit chipping size. Inter-blade differences generally reflect class characteristics previously established for hand-powered blades, though reciprocating blades do not strictly follow these categorizations (Symes 1992; Symes et al. 1998, 2010). Identification of inter-blade differences allows the limited identification of sub-classes within reciprocating saws based on the above characteristics, though blades cannot be uniquely identified. Additionally, interior exit chipping was noted, which has not been mentioned in previous sharp force trauma research. Ultimately, this research has applications for sharp force trauma analysis and further aids in the identification of reciprocating saw use in a forensic context, including dismemberments.

Determining the depositional environment and the postmortem alterations to a set of remains are aspects of forensic investigations that are necessary to explain the circumstances surrounding the death of the individual. Further research on the taphonomic agents that can impact skeletal material can aid in the differentiation between various postmortem alterations that impact a single set of remains. The present study focuses on organic staining as a method for reconstructing the deposited environment of the remains and the taphonomic agents in which they came into contact. Organic staining results largely from tannins leaching from plant materials, including wood and leaves, and therefore can be seen on bone deposited in wooden coffin environments or on terrestrial surfaces. The present study hypothesized that the degree of staining observed on skeletal elements would increase as the length of exposure to the organic matter increased and that different plant materials, and environments, would leave different patterns or colorations of staining. The skeletal elements consisted of 150 commercially available pig (Sus scrofa) femora that had the epiphyses removed and were completely defleshed without utilizing chemicals or boiling. The sample was divided into three groups with differing conditions and/or types of organic material introduced. Some were buried in a marshy environment within wooden boxes constructed of ten wood types commonly utilized in coffin construction throughout U.S. history: hickory (Carya sp.), walnut (Juglans sp.), cherry (Prunus sp.), soft maple (Acer sp.), mahogany (Swietenia sp.), yellow pine (Pinus sp.), poplar (Populus sp.), cedar (Cedrus sp.), oak (Quercus sp.), and spruce (Picea sp.). Additional femora were deposited in plastic containers lined with the same wood types as above and filled with tap water. Five control bones were deposited in a container with tap water and five additional bones were placed in a container with commercial tannic acid. The final group of femora was deposited on the ground surface surrounded by four types of dead vegetation: evergreen pine needles (Pinus strobus), northern red oak leaves (Quercus rubra), sugar maple leaves (Acer saccharum), and acorns (Quercus rubra) collected from the Boston area. The bones were removed once a month from their experimental environments and left overnight to dry. The level of staining that manifested on the osseous material was recorded qualitatively using the Munsell Soil Color Chart under a consistent indoor 40- watt daylight light bulb. The staining was recorded after two months upon initiation of the study and every following month until the study’s completion. After the color staining was recorded, the bones were returned to their experimental environments until the next interval of data collection. An additional sample of 15 bones, which were previously buried with direct soil contact, was also analyzed. These bones were either buried within the O, A, or C soil horizons for an interval of 1, 2, or 3 years prior to analysis. They were photographed and the staining was classified on one occasion after which the bones were permanently withdrawn and not returned to the experimental environment. In all of the experimental environments, staining was present after two months of exposure, and the color darkened across the bone surface with each episode of data collection. Both groups exposed to the wood types displayed staining across the entire bone surface with a few major colors on the bone shaft, while minor colors were only expressed along the margins or as small patches along the shaft. As the buried boxes began to break down, which is commonly observed in coffin burials, soil was able to infiltrate the boxes and contact the bones. This process resulted in multiple shades of brown to be present in the staining across bones in multiple wood types. The bones in the plastic containers with wood exhibited a larger variation in color staining likely due to a higher concentration of tannins restricted to a smaller area around the bones combined with a lack of water inflow. The staining ranged from red for bones with mahogany to brown for bones with cedar to even dark gray or black on bones with walnut and tannic acid, respectively. The bones in plant matter differed in that the organic staining was sporadic, often with large areas of very pale brown or yellowish brown coloration and with smaller patches of shades of darker brown. The staining present on the buried soil bones was intermediate to the other samples, in that it was diffuse across the shaft with a large range of colorations present. The results from the present study indicate that staining can manifest on bone within a relatively short time frame once skeletonization occurs and a variety of colorations or patterns of staining can manifest based on the plant material. The present research demonstrates the potential of organic staining to aid in estimations of the postmortem interval as well as an environmental reconstruction through species identification.