I studied habitat preferences of three common endemic butterflies in the Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon. Assuming that the life history traits of taxa with limited geographic distribution reflect past habitat conditions within their ranges, the history and conservation of West African mountain landscape is discussed.

The aim of this thesis has been to study and analyse in detail the process by which timber floating in tributaries was phased out. The region covered is that of the Ume and Vindel rivers and the period studied is 1945-70. The years I945-60 have been the most central to the analysis. The approach taken was to study timber floating itself rather than the new transport alternative (lorries) which developed during the post-war period. This brought the increasing costs of timber floating in tributaries into the forefront of the investigation, along with the efforts made to restrain these by means of investment in and partial closure of the floatway network. The consequences in terms of changed labour demand are also discussed. An important part of the analysis has been to examine the inherent weaknesses of timber floating in tributaries and the internal driving forces underlying its phasing-out. The term "internal driving forces" connotes those forces which affected timber floating as a means of transport by causing its costs to rise. In other words it has not been a matter of looking at the direct competition from lorry transport and the advantages of the new transport technique but rather of identifying the drawbacks of floating, when, where and how they arose, and how they helped to make it relatively dearer, thus motivating the changeover to lorry transport. The internal driving forces were forest structure and labour costs. When labour costs incurred in timber floating in tributaries were rising rapidly and the dimensions of the logs became smaller in size, floating became a dearer transport solution than before. As regards changes in forest structure, the dimensions of logs were diminishing throughout the floating epoch. This meant that the risk of sinking during floating increased. The effect of this was that the need to bark the timber was increasing all the time, which in turn entailed an indirect transport cost for floating. In addition to this, smaller log dimensions affected the labour time and cost of floating. The changed labour conditions along with the changed forest structure showed the importance of studying structural change in the Norrland forest region. For during the later 1940s and early 1950s a shortage of labour presented itself, and the cause was to be found in the new job opportunities which were emerging, some in the rural areas, for example in the construction of hydro-electric powerplants, and some in the larger populated localities, and these factors taken together made recruitment for jobs in forestry and timber floating more difficult. One of the chief characteristics of the way events were moving was that recruitment shifted away from having mainly targeted the agrarian lower class of smallholders, crofters and leaseholders so that it now focused increasingly on freehold farmers while at the same time the recruitment base, having previously consisted of younger workers, was now composed mainly of older people. Also in this study, various factors have been examined which could conceivably explain the changes in productivity of timber floating in tributaries. The results show, for example, that during the 1950s a partial phasing-out had very small direct effects on productivity in the area studied. Thus the combination of investment and changes in the quantity of timber is the factor which best explains the differences between different tributaries in the trend of productivity. A tributary´s greater capacity to float timber did not necessarily signify a bigger labour requirement since to a certain extent the watercourse itself “did the job”. As regards investment, clearance operations using caterpillar tractors were probably very important. It is true that the genuine dependence of log driving in tributaries on nature influenced conditions varied strongly from year to year, but since the link between investment costs and the trend of productivity is significant, it still seems reasonable to draw the conclusion that investment lent impetus to the rise in productivity during the 1950s. / digitalisering@umu

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The main topic of this diploma thesis is the historical-sociological analysis of spa forests in the surroundings of Carlsbad. More and more people exploit the nature, especially near human settlements. Therefore, there is a question if suburban, or in our case spa forests, wouldn't have according to the law other rights and obligations than other types of forests. The subject of the research is the analysis of the development of Carlsbad spa forests (Lázeňské lesy Karlovy Vary) during their historical development and related social development, which was reflected on the form of the spa forests. The main research initiative is human access to forests in terms of sustainable forestry and ecological balance depending on the natural and social contexts of the area around the city of Carlsbad. The diploma thesis is divided into two main parts - theoretical and empirical. In the theoretical part, through a careful analysis of the literature and research of sources, there is a historical development of forests with respect to the spa area of the city of Carlsbad. Furthermore, the geomorphological and social description of the researched area with legal, ecological and forestry theory is described as well. The empirical part of the work is focuses on quality research, which was conducted on the basis of...

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Abstract A study is made of the dealings of the local people with the Board of Forestry in matters connected with the crown forests of Northern Finland in the 19th century, setting out from the creation of the Forestry Board, the establishment of its ways of working and its local impact on settlement and sources of livelihood. This state of tension was perpetuated by delays in implementation of the Great Partition and by the presence of cottagers and pioneer settlers living in the crown forests. One major question was whether these forests were intended primarily to serve the purposes of state forestry or of settlement in the north of Finland. An account is given of the attitude of the Forestry Board towards the traditional modes of forest use typical of the crown forests, including swidden cultivation, tar burning and the cutting of wood for domestic use. New information is presented on the part played by the Forestry Board in regulating swidden cultivation and tar burning. Another topic not previously addressed is illicit exploitation of the crown forests. This was common practice in the Tornio and Ii river valleys in particular, to the extent that forest wardens on the border with Sweden were supplied with pistols to deal with this threat. The sale of timber cut illegally from the crown forests to sawmills in both Finland and Sweden was widespread, and it was common in the Ii Valley to trade in the timber which the Forestry Board allowed private persons to cut as a form of relief to the poor. The grazing of livestock in crown forests was another bone of contention between Forestry Board officials and the local people, the controversy over cows and what damage they actually did to the crown forests continuing well into the 20th century and ultimately remaining unresolved. Similar disputes arose over spruces carrying beard lichen, on which the reindeer fed, once the demand for spruce pulpwood increased. The actions taking by the foresters in accordance with the law and the demands of their office aroused much criticism in Finland, and this polemic spread to the newspapers, the Diet and the literature of the day. It was the fate of the Forestry Board and its officials to become an object of suspicion and even downright hatred. Their interference with traditional sources of livelihood, modes of land use and ancient rights of exploitation was apt to give rise to friction and maintain an attitude of mistrust on both sides. The present work provides new explanations for the author Pentti Haanpää's famous saying, "Beware of fine gentlemen – and of foresters most of all", and modern forest management conflicts can be appreciated and understood better in the light of these events. / Tiivistelmä Olen tutkinut metsähallituksen ja pohjoissuomalaisten kanssakäymistä ja suhteiden muotoutumista Pohjois-Suomen kruununmetsissä 1800-luvulla. Lähtökohtina ovat metsähallinnon perustaminen, toiminnan vakiinnuttaminen sekä metsähallinnon vaikutus paikallisiin elinkeinoihin ja asutustoimintaan. Kangertelu metsänhoidossa ja liiketoiminnan aloittamisessa sekä yhteenotot paikallisen väestön ja lehdistön kanssa sävyttivät metsähallinnon ensimmäisten vuosikymmenten toimintaa. Hidastunut isojako sekä kruununmetsiin hakeutunut asutus, kruununmetsätorpat ja uudistilat, ylläpitivät jännittynyttä suhdetta. Suuri kysymys oli, olivatko kruununmetsät valtion metsätaloutta vai Pohjois-Suomen asutusta varten. Tutkimuksessa myös selitetään, miten metsähallinto suhtautui perinteisiin, juuri kruununmetsiin suuntautuneisiin metsänkäyttötapoihin, kuten kaskenpolttoon, tervatalouteen ja puun kotitarvekäyttöön. Metsähallinnon osuus kaskeamisen ja tervanpolton ohjailussa nousee esille uudella tavalla. Kruununmetsien haaskaajat eli varkaat ovat myös ennen tutkimaton teema. Kruununmetsien varastaminen oli yleistä erityisesti Tornionjokilaaksossa ja Iijokilaaksossa. Ruotsin rajan läheisyydessä toimineet metsänvartijat jopa aseistettiin pistoolein metsävarkaita vastaan. Varastetun puutavaran toimittaminen niin Suomen kuin Ruotsin sahoille oli maan tapa. Iijokilaaksossa turvauduttiin metsähallinnon käsikauppa- eli lupapuihin, joista tuli köyhäinavun, mutta myös keinottelun muoto. Keinottelu varsinaisilla valtionmailla eli haku uudistilalliseksi vain puutavaran vuoksi, kuuluu myös Pohjois-Suomen metsähistoriaan. Eläinten laiduntaminen kruununmetsissä myös asetti metsähallinnon virkamiehet ja paikallisen väestön vastakkain. Vielä 1900-luvulla lehmä kruununmetsissä oli kiistan kohteena. Lopullista selvyyttä siihen, mitä vahinkoa lehmä teki kruununmetsille, ei saatu koskaan. Lisäksi porojen käyttämät luppopuut eli naavakuuset hiersivät suhteita tilanteessa, jossa kuusipuulle oli syntymässä kysyntää paperipuuna. Metsänhoitajat saivat kritiikkiä toimiessaan viran ja lain vaatimalla tavalla Pohjois-Suomessa. Metsäherroja polemisoitiin sanomalehdissä, valtiopäivillä ja kirjallisuudessa. Metsähallinnon ja metsäherrojen osana oli 1800-luvulla olla epäluulon ja suorastaan vihamielisyydenkin kohteena. Puuttuminen perinteisiin elinkeinoihin, maankäyttötapoihin ja muinaisiin tapaoikeuksiin synnytti kitkaa suhteisiin ja ylläpiti epäluuloa molemmin puolin. Pentti Haanpään teksti "Herroja on epäiltävä aina – metsäherroja yli kaiken" on saanut uutta, selittävää ainesta ympärilleen. Nykyiset metsäkonfliktit avautuvat paremmin ja tulevat ymmärrettävimmiksi 1800-luvun metsähistorian kautta.

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Final Report / Contract on 43-8371-4-628 / For: USDA, Forest Service, Southwestern Region / Regional outbreaks of western spruce budworms (Choristoneura occidentalis Freeman) have recurred at least three times in northern New Mexico since the early 1920's when the U. S. Forest Service first began systematic forest-pest surveys and documentation (Lessard 1975, U. S. Forest Service documents). The current outbreak was first noticed in a small area on the Taos Indian Reservation in 1974, and since then the defoliated areas have increased in New Mexico and Arizona to more than 370,000 acres of Federal, Indian, State and private lands (Linnane 1984). Losses in timber values can generally be ascribed to radial growth loss, height growth loss, topkilling, reduced regeneration, and mortality (Carlson et al. 1983, Fellin et al. 1983). A damage assessment project was initiated in 1978 and was aimed at obtaining measurements of some of these losses in budworm infested stands on the Carson National Forest, New Mexico (Holland and Lessard 1979). A large data base has subsequently been developed, including yearly measurements on topkilling, mortality, defoliation, and insect population changes (Stein 1980, 1981, Stein and McDonnell 1982, Rogers 1984). A growth assessment study was undertaken in 1982 to determine the feasibility of using dendrochronological methods to identify the timing of past outbreaks and to quantify radial growth losses associated with budworm defoliation (Swetnam 1984). Results of this work showed that three major outbreaks during the twentieth century were clearly visible in the tree-ring samples obtained from currently infested trees. The radial growth of host trees was corrected for age, climate and other non-budworm environmental effects, and then growth losses were computed as a percentage of expected growth (Swetnam 1984). Additional collections were obtained in 1984 in order to expand the scope of the radial growth study. The objectives included 1) assessment of a larger number of tree -ring samples, 2) comparison of radial growth losses between the two primary host species - Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor), 3) comparison of radial growth losses between age classes, and 4) analysis of the relationship between yearly measurements of defoliation, insect populations and radial growth. This report summarizes the findings of the above analyses. Increment core samples from the 1982 collections are included here, therefore this report supersedes the earlier report (Swetnam 1984). Information is also presented on observations derived from the dated tree-ring series on the timing of occurrence of known and inferred spruce budworm outbreaks for the past 284 years (1700- 1983). This is the longest record of spruce budworm occurrence yet developed for western North America.