Thesis (MSc) -- Stellenbosch University , 1995. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A number of small greenstone bodies of the Bridgetown Formation are exposed as elongated lenses and dykes within metasediments of the Malmesbury Group in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. The Malmesbury Group is part of the Neoproterozoic to Cambrian (Namibian) Saldania Subprovince which is the southern continuation of a Pan-African mobile belt system. A detailed geological and geochemical study was conducted on the largest outcrop of the Bridgetown Formation, situated 20km east of the town Moorreesburg. The Bridgetown Formation consists of a meta-volcano-sedimentary sequence that experienced polyphase deformation and metamorphism up to the lower greenschist facies. Tectonically, the Bridgetown Formation is included in the Boland tectonic domain, east of the Piketberg-Wel lington fault zone that is suggested to run Skm west of Heuningberg and subparallel to the Berg River. This agrees with Rabie's (1974) original subdivision of the tectonic domains. The Bridgetown Formation consists of: i) A basal unit of poorly differentiated alkaline metabasalt with a within-plate tectonomagmatic fingerprint. ii) An intermediate unit of poorly differentiated tholeiitic metabasalt, intruded by a younger tholeiitic metabasite with a low degree of differentiation. Both members of the intermediate unit have ocean-floor basalt (P-type MORB) and island arc basalt fingerprints. iii) An upper unit of poorly differentiated as well as more evolved alkaline metabasalts, interlayered with metatuff with an alkaline basaltic composition, metasedimentary rocks with a marine origin, and graphitic schists and muscovitequartz schists, both with a continental crust provenance. iv) An overlying metasedimentary sequence including dolomite, massive and oolitic chert, jasper and jaspilite. The Bridgetown Formation probably also comprises a lower metamorphosed ultramafic unit, indicated by the association of Ni- and Cr-rich talc bodies, Ni-and errich banded chert, chlorite schist and small dolomite-talc-chlorite bodies at Spitskop, situated directly northwest of the main greenstone body. The sequence of eruptive stages and the geochemistry of the metavolcanics resemble Hawaiian volcanism , indicated by an initial deep water stage of alkaline magmatism, followed by main tholeiitic edifice and post-caldera alkaline magmatism. Post-caldera alkaline magmatism occurred contemporaneously with deposition . of sediments and chemical precipitates (carbonates and cherts). The Bridgetown metavolcanics have no magmatic association with either the Bloubergstrand volcanics or mafic and intermediate plutonic rocks in the Malmesbury Group. However, some physical and geochemical similarities exist between the Bridgetown Formation and the age related Grootderm Formation of the Marmora Terrane (Gariep Supergroup) which is considered to represent ophiolitic material. The Bridgetown Formation probably represents segments of oceanic crust, including seamounts of oceanic islands, which were tectonically emplaced in an accretionary prism zone during subduction of oceanic crust underneath the Kalahari Craton, 600 to 700 Ma ago. This resulted in the present spatial configuration of various small greenstone bodies in the Malmesbury Group. To date no exploitable mineral deposits have been found 1n the Bridgetown Formation. However, Au and As anomalies in stream sediment and soil samples, taken in the Spitskop area, require further attention. lt is suggested that the gold and arsenic is hosted in brittle deformed clear to milky quartz veins which developed at zones of competency contrasts in all the li tholog ies in the Spitskop area. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Aantal klein groenskisliggame van die Bridgetown Formasie is blootgestel as verlengde lense en gange binne metasedimente van die Malmesbury Groep in die Wes-Kaap Provinsie, Suid-Afrika. Die Malmesbury Groep is deel van die Neoproterozo·iese tot Kambriese (Namibiese) Saldania Subprovinsie wat die suidelike voortsetting is van 'n Pan-Afrikaanse mobiele gordel sisteem. 'n Gedetaileerde geologiese en geochemiese studie is gedoen op die grootste dagsoom van die Bridgetown Formasie, gelee 20km oos van die dorp Moorreesburg. Die Bridgetown Formasie bestaan uit 'n metavulkanies-sedimentere opeenvolging wat pol ifase vervorming en metamorfisme tot en met die laer groenskis fasies ondergaan het. Die Bridgetown Formasie word hier in die Boland tektoniese domein ingedeel deur die Piketberg-Wellington verskuiwingsone 5km wes van Heuningberg, subparallel a an die Bergrivier, te plaas. Dit stem ooreen met Rabie ( 197 4) se oorspronkl ike verdeling van die tektoniese domeine. Die Bridgetown Formasie bestaan uit: i) 'n Basale eenheid wat hoofsaaklik bestaan uit min gedifferens ieerde alkali-metabasalte met binneplaat tektonomagmatiese eienskappe. ii) 'n lntermediere eenheid wat bestaan uit min gedifferensieerde tholeiitiese metabasalt en 'n jonger intrusiewe tholeiitiese metabasiet wat 'n lae graad van differensias ie ondergaan het. Beide intermediere eenhede het oseaanvloer-basalt (P-t ipe MORB) en eilandboog basaltiese eienskappe. iii) 'n Boonste eenheid wat bestaan uit min gedifferensieerde asook meer gedifferensieerde alkal i-metabasalte, tussengelaagd met metatuf met 'n alka libasaltiese samestelling; metasedimentere gesteentes met 'n mariene oorsprong, en grafitiese ski ste en kwarts-muskoviet skiste, beide met 'n kontinentale kors oorsprong . iv) 'n Oorliggende metasedimentere opeenvolging wat dolomiet, massiewe en ooli tiese chert, jaspis en jaspiliet insluit. Die Bridgetown Formasie slu it moontlik ook 'n onderliggende gemetamorfiseerde ultramafiese eenheid in; aangedui deur die assosiasie van Ni- en Cr-ryke ta lkl iggame, Ni- en Cr-ryke gebande chert, chlorietskis en klein dolomiet-talk-chloriet liggame by Spitskop, gelee direk noordwes van die hoof groensteenliggaam. Die opeenvolg ing van magmatisme en die geochemie van die metavulkaniese gesteentes stem ooreen met Hawaiiese vulkanisme, naamlik 'n diepwater stadium, gekarakteriseer deur alkaliese magmatisme, gevolg deur 'n hoof tholeiitiese opbouing en post-kaldera alkaliese magmatisme. Die post-kaldera alkaliese magmatisme het gelyktydig plaasgevind met afsetting van sedimente en chemiese presipitate (karbonate en cherte ). Die Bridgetown metavulkaniese gesteentes het geen magmatiese assosiasie met 6f die Bloubergstrand vulkaniese gesteentes 6f mafiese en intermediere plutoniese gesteentes in die Malmesbury Groep nie. Fisiese en geochemiese ooreenkomste bestaan egter tussen die Bridgetown Formasie en die Grootderm Formasie van die Marmora Terrein (Gariep Supergroep) wat beskou word as ofiolitiese materiaal. Die Bridgetown Formasie verteenwoordig moontlik segmente van oseaankors, insluitende oseaan-eilande, wat tektonies in 'n melange sone ingeplaas is tydens subduksie van oseaankors onder die Kalahari Kraton in (600 tot 700 Mj gelede). Dit verklaar die huidige ruimte like verspreiding van verske ie klein groensteenliggame in die Malmesbury Groep. Tot en met hede is geen ontginbare mineraalafsettings in die Bridgetown Formasie ontdek nie. Au en As anomalie in stroomsediment- en grondmonsters, geneem in die Spitskop area, behoort egter verdere aandag te geniet. Daar is voorgestel dat die goud en arseen voorkom in brosvervormde helder tot melkerige kwartsare wat ontwikkel het in swak sones in al die litologie in die Spitskop area.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 1989. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Senosoiese sedimente langs die suidooskus van die Kaapprovinsie is periodiek deur verskeie outeurs vir meer as 'n eeu bestudeer. In hierdie aanbieding word die Iiteratuur saamgevat en vele dubbelsinnige stratigrafiese onderverdelings en definisies opgeklaar. Die Senosoiese afsettings kan volgens oorsprong geklassifiseer word as marien, eolies en fluviaal. Die mariene afsettings, synde strand-, nabystrand-, estuarien of lagunale afsettings geassosieerd met transgressiewe/ regressiewe kusIyne, word nou op grond van kenmerkende litologiese, paleontologiese sowel as ouderdomsverskille onderverdeel in die Paleogeen Bathurst, Neogeen Alexandria en Kwaternere Salnova Foraasies. Die Laat-Plioseen tot Vroeg-Pleistoseen Nanaga Formasie, Middel- tot Laat- Pleistoseen Nahoon Formasie en die Holoseen Schel• Hoek Formasie vorm die kus-eoliese afsettings. AI die mariene en marienverwante (eoliese} formasies, gekenmerk deur kalkige klastiese afsettings, is saamgegroepeer in 'n nuutgedefinieerde Algoa Groep. Fluviale afsettings word onderverdeel in die Martindale, Kinkelbos, Bluewater Bay, Kudus Kloof en Sunland Formasies. Die onderskeie afsettings word gekorreleer met verskillende seevlakstande deur geologiese tye. Die vroegste Senosoiese transgressiewe/regressiewe siklus het in die Vroeg-Paleoseen begin en die hoogste aangetekende elevasie vir die era bereik. Die Bathurst Formasie is waarskynlik gedurende hierdie regressie afgeset. 'n Tweed~ kleiner transgressie/ regressiesiklus het plaasgevind gedurende die Laat-Eoseen tot Vroeg-Oligoseen. Sover tans bekend, kan geen afsetting in die dagsoomgebied van die Algoa Groep definitief met hierdie siklus in verband gebring word nie. Die volgende siklus, wat 'n transgressiewe maksimum van c. 250 m bereik het, het begin in die Middel-Mioseen en verstryk in die Vroee Plioseen. Mariene planasie van die kusplatform het gedurende die transgressie plaasgevind terwyl die Alexandria Formasie wat tans bo 120 m geleë is, gedurende die regressie afgeset is. Die Vroeg-Plioseen transgressie het waarskynlik 'n maksimum huidige hoogte van c. 120 m bereik, waartydens o.a. die 120 m branderstoep en "Humansdorpterras" gekerf is. Die Alexandria Formasie tans geleë tussen 60 en 120 m, is afgeset gedurende die Laat-Plioseen regressie. Hierdie regressie het verskeie relatief lang stilstande, wat waarskynlik die 106-m, 90- tot 100-m en 84-m branderstoepe verklaar, ondervind. Selfs die 60-m en 52-m kuslyne kon tydens hierdie regressie gevorm het. Voorlopige paleontologiese getuienis dui egter daarop dat die 60-m kuslyn 'n transgressiewe maksimum van 'n daaropvolgende siklus verteenwoordig, gevolg deur 'n regressie met minstens een beduidende stilstand by 52 m. Die Alexandria Formasie geleë tussen c. 60 en 30 m, is waarskynlik gedurende hierdie regressie gedeponeer, waartydens ook die Bluewater Bay, Kinkelbos en Kudus Kloof Formasies afgeset is. Gedurende die Kwaternêre transgressie/regressiesiklusse, waarvan minstens vier aangedui word, is die Salnova Formasie (afwesig bo 30 m) afgeset. Die Nahoon Formasie, wat ook op groot skaal op die kontinentale bank ontwikkel is, is gedeponeer gedurende die laaste twee Pleistoseen glasiale toe seevlakke tot benede -100 m gedaal het. Die Schelm Hoek Formasie wat tans nog afgeset word, het ontstaan uit die transgressiewe maksimum van die Flandriese transgressie aan die begin van die Holoseen. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Cenozoic sediments along the south-east coast of the Cape Province have been studied intermittently for more than a century by various authors. In this presentation the literature is reviewed and many ambiguous stratigraphic subdivisions and definitions are clarified. The Cenozoic deposits can be classified, according to origin, as marine, aeolian and fluvial. The marine deposits, being lagoonal deposits either beach, nearshore, estuarine or associated with transgressive/regressive shorelines, are now subdivided on the grounds of distinct lithological, palaeontological as well as age differences into the Palaeogene Bathurst, Neogene Alexandria and Quaternary Salnova Formations. The Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene Nanaga Formation, the Hiddle to Late Pleistocene Nahoon Formation and the Holocene Schelm Hoek Formation constitute the coastal and marine-related aeolian deposits. All the marine (aeolian) formations, which are characterised by calcareous clastics, have been grouped together in a newly defined Algoa Group. Fluvial deposits are subdivided into the Martindale, Kinkelbos, Bluewater Bay, Kudus Kloof and Sunland Formations. The various deposits are correlated with different stands of sea-level through geological time. The earliest Cenozoic transgression/regression cycle started in the Early Palaeocene and reached the highest recorded altitude for the era. The Bathurst Formation was probably deposited during this regression. A second lesser transgression/regression cycle occurred in the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene. As far as is presently known, no deposit in the outcrop area of the Algoa Group can be definitely related to this cycle. The next cycle, which reached a transgressive maximum of c. 250 m, started in the Middle Miocene and terminated in the Early Pliocene. Marine planation of the coastal platform took place during the transgression, whilst the Alexandria Formation presently situated above 120 m, was deposited during the regression. The Early Pliocene transgression is considered to have reached a maximum present-day elevation of c. 120 m, during which the 120 m marine bench and "Humansdorp Terrace", amongst others, were carved. The Alexandria Formation presently situated between 60 and 120 m, was deposited during the Late Pliocene regression, which experienced several relatively long stillstands which probably account for the 106 m, 90 t.o 100 m and 8.4 m benches. Even the 60 m- and 52 m-shorelines could have been formed during this regression. Preliminary palaeontological evidence, however, suggests that the 60 m shoreline represents a transgressive maximum of a subsequent cycle followed by a regression with at least one significant stillstand at 52 m. The Alexandria Formation situated between c. 60 and 30 m, was probably deposited during this regression, which also saw the deposition of the Bluewater Bay, Kinkelbos and Kudus Kloof Formations. During the Quaternary transgression/regression cycles, of which at least four are indicated, the Salnova Formation (absent above 30 m) was deposited. The Nahoon Formation, which is also extensively developed on the continental shelf, was deposited during the last two Pleistocene glacials, when sea-levels receded to less than -100 m. The Schelm Hoek Formation, which is still being deposited, originated from the transgressive maximum of the Flandrian transgression at the start of the Holocene.

Detailed field mapping (Map, Appendix B) has been conducted in and around the boundaries of a 14x18km, volcanic complex 35km northeast of Molteno in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The structure is interpreted as a subsidence structure, and is filled with two volcaniclastic breccias, numerous lava flows, a number of sedimentary facies, and lies on a base of Clarens Formation overlying Elliot Formation rocks. This is an important study because 'widespread, voluminous fields of basaltic breccias are very rare (see Hanson and Elliot, 1996) and this is the first time that this type of volcanic complex and its deposits have been described. Detailed analyses of the two volcaniclastic breccias revealed changes in colour, clast types, clast sizes, and degree of alteration over relatively short distances both vertically and laterally within a single breccia unit. The variation in clast sizes implies a lack of sorting of the breccias. The lower of the two volcaniclastic breccias fills the subsidence structure, and outcrops between the Stormberg sedimentary sequence and the overlying Drakensberg basalts and was produced from phreatomagmatic eruptions signalling the start of the break-up of Gondwanaland in the mid-Jurassic. The upper volcaniclastic breccia is interbedded with the flood basalts and is separated from the lower breccia by up to 100m of lava flows in places, it is finer-grained than the lower volcaniclastic breccia, and it extends over 10km south, and over 100km north from the volcanic complex. The upper breccia is inferred to have been transported from outside the study area, from a source presumably similar to the subsidence structure in the volcanic complex. The pyroclastic material forming the upper breccia was transported to the subsidence structure as a laharic debris flow, based on its poorly sorted, unwelded and matrix-supported appearance. However, both breccias are unlikely to have been derived from epiclastic reworking of lava flows as they contain glass shards which are atypical of those derived from the autoclastic component of lava flows. The breccias are therefore not "secondary" lahars. There is also no evidence of any palaeotopographic highs from which the breccias could have been derived as gravity-driven flows. Based on the occurrence of three, 1m thick lacustrine deposits, localised peperite, fluvial reworking of sandstone and breccia in an outcrop to the south of the subsidence structure, and channel-lags encountered only in the upper units of the Clarens Formation and only within the subsidence structure, the palaeoenvironment inferred for the subsidence structure is one of wet sediment, possibly a shallow lake, in a topographic depression fed by small streams. Magmatic intrusions below the subsidence structure heated the water-laden, partly consolidated Clarens Formation sandstones, causing the circulation of pore fluid which resulted in the precipitation of minerals forming pisoliths in the sandstones. Intruding magma mixed, nonexplosively, with the wet, unconsolidated sediments near the base of the Clarens Formation (at approximately 100m below the surface), forming fluidal peperite by a process of sediment fluidisation where magma replaces wet sediment and cools slowly enough to prevent the magma fracturing brittly. Formation of fluidal peperite may have been a precursor to the development of FCIs (Fuel Coolant Interactions) (Busby-Spera and White, 1987). The breccias may represent the products of FCIs and may be the erupted equivalents of the peperites, suggesting a possible genetic link between the two. The peperites may have given way to FCI eruptions due to a number of factors including the drying out of the sediments and/or an increase in the volume of intruded magma below the subsidence structure which may have resulted in a more explosive interaction between sediment and magma. Phreatic activity fragmented and erupted the Clarens Formation sandstone, and stream flows reworked the angular sandstone fragments, pisoliths and sand grains into channelised deposits. With an increase in magmatic activity below the subsidence structure, phreatic activity became phreatomagmatic. The wet, partly consolidated Clarens Formation, and underlying, fully consolidated Elliot Formation sediments were erupted and fragmented. Clasts and individual grains of these sediments were redeposited with juvenile and non-juvenile basaltic material probably by a combination of back fall, where clasts erupted into the air fell directly back into the structure, and backflow where material was erupted out of the structure, but immediately flowed back in as lahars. This material formed the lower volcaniclastic breccia. A fault plane is identified along the southwestern margin of the subsidence structure, and is believed to continue up the western margin to the northwestern corner. A large dolerite body has intruded along the inferred fault plane on the western margin of the structure, and may be related to the formation of the lower volcaniclastic breccia, either directly through fluidisation of wet sediment during its intrusion, or as a dyke extending upwards from a network of sill-like intrusions below the subsidence structure. Geochemical analysis of the Drakensberg basalt lava flows by Mitchell (1980) and Masokwane (1997) revealed four distinct basalt types; the Moshesh's Ford, the Tafelkop, the Roodehoek, and the Vaalkop basalts. Basalt clasts sampled from the lower volcaniclastic breccia were shown to belong to the Moshesh's Ford basalt type which does not outcrop in situ within the subsidence structure. This implies that the Moshesh's Ford basalts were emplaced prior to the formation of the lower volcaniclastic breccia, and may have acted as a "cap-rock" over the system, allowing pressure from the vaporised fluids, heated by intruding basalt, to build up. The Moshesh's Ford basalt type was erupted prior to the resultant phreatomagmatic events forming the lower volcaniclastic breccia.

Hydrogeologists have faced serious challenges worldwide in the characterization of fractured rock aquifers due to the heterogeneous nature of the imbedded geology. The bulk flow parameters in the Karoo strata in South Africa are specifically uncertain since most models are based on homogenous block systems. As part of a WRC research project, entitled “Measurement of the bulk flow and transport characteristics of selected fractured rock aquifer systems in South Africa”, this study focuses on the characterization, borehole drilling, flow parameter measurements and groundwater quality assessment of the Balfour Formation in the Beaufort Group of the Karoo Supergroup in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, which is seriously heterogeneous in deposition and has also been largely neglected as drilling targets for groundwater. The Balfour Formation comprises mostly mudstone, shale and sandstone, formed in a braided and meandering river system. In addition to the heterogeneous deposition, the flow pathways in this aquifer system are not fully understood due to lack of actual measurement data. The methods used in this study include field mapping, site characterization, borehole drilling, and pumping and tracer testing in order to obtain the borehole yield, aquifer transmissivity, storativity and groundwater flow velocity. In addition, the groundwater chemistry was also studied to determine quality for use and possible connectivity with the nearby Tyume River and to determine potential sources of groundwater contamination. The results obtained include: 1) The study area is predominantly mudstone/shale with thin layers and lenses of siltstone and sandstone, which are interbedded; 2) Two boreholes were successfully drilled, which had yields in excess of 10 l/s in four water levels (at 7, 22, 54 and 65 m); 3) The estimated average transmissivity is 246 m 2/day according to the recovery test; 4) The estimated seepage velocity is 120 m/day according to tracer tests in the aquifer between the two boreholes which are 5 m apart; and 5) The water chemical type is the combination of HCO3-, Cl-and SO42- , which is distinguishable from that of the Tyume river; 6) There is no evidence for groundwater recharge to the deep aquifers from the Tyume river, based on the differences of the water chemistry; 7) The elements Ca, Cl, Na and C are distributed more than 90% as free ion species in BH2 borehole water; and 8) The groundwater in BH2 borehole is undersaturated (negative SI) with respect to some minerals (for example: anhydrite, fluorite, gypsum and halite), oversaturated (positive SI) with respect to some minerals (for example: aragonite, calcite and dolomite). It is concluded that there is a great potential to obtain drilling targets for high yielding boreholes in the sedimentary rocks of the Balfour Formation in the Karoo Supergroup.