This thesis describes an investigation into the outcomes of a developmental project focussed on improving the word reading skills of a group of (n=77) secondary school students across five different school settings in a South West of England Local Authority. The 'Plymouth Precision Teaching Project' was conducted during the 2007/8 academic year commencing in September 2007 through to April 2008. The project involved the delivery of regular Precision Teaching (PT) programmes across two cohorts (1 and 2) of students by Teaching Assistants (TAs) in each school who themselves received ongoing training and support throughout the project. This thesis reports on three inter-connected aspects of research stemming from the project: Aspect One considered the impact of PT interventions delivered by trained TAs on groups of secondary school students with literacy learning needs through a quasi-experimental design. Aspect Two investigated the adaptations made by TAs within PT programmes to improve student word reading skills; from here a framework for systematic teaching adaptations was formulated, trialled and reviewed. Aspect Three drew on the experiences of school staff and their learning throughout the initiative. The value of participating in the research was investigated through exploring TAs’ reflections on the development of their understanding of the processes and practices surrounding ‘teaching and learning’. Outcomes of the research point to the continuing contribution of PT to addressing basic reading skill needs through heightened structure to intervention delivery, promotion and scrutiny of ‘treatment fidelity’ and an ongoing, systemic approach to the development of staff skills. This thesis also emphasises the mutual benefits that a collaborative project such as this can bring about; not only can staff contribute to the development of intervention approaches and provide high-quality interventions, but they can also develop their professional knowledge too. As a venture networking schools, a local authority educational psychology service and a university department, it is suggested this thesis reflects a description of the ground modernised educational psychology services should seek to occupy more and more.

The overarching question for this study is: to what extent are teachers using summative assessment data in a formative way? A survey research design study was implemented to address this question. A web-based survey was administered to elementary, middle, and high school teachers in a large, suburban school division in central Virginia. The survey data were used to determine the frequency with which teachers administered specific types of summative assessments, analyzed student summative assessment data, made changes in their instructional practice as a result of their analysis, and the level of teachers’ assessment literacy. The results of this study suggest teachers are administering a variety of summative assessments, with varying frequencies, throughout the year and analyzing data on a regular basis. Teachers’ formative use of summative assessment data is most often demonstrated through analysis using central tendency statistics. Disaggregating data by content standards or student subgroups is not as frequently attempted. Regardless of the methods of data analysis, an overwhelming majority of teachers reported using assessment data results to evaluate their instructional practice and make changes to enhance student learning. The assessment literacy level of teachers did not appear to have any influence on the extent to which they use summative assessments in a formative way. However, assessment literacy scores did differ across teacher characteristics. High school teachers had a higher assessment literacy score than elementary school teachers, and teachers with graduate degrees scored higher than those with a bachelor’s degree. Experience mattered as well; more experienced teachers had a higher assessment literacy score than beginning teachers. Finally, science and mathematics teachers had a higher assessment literacy score than elementary teachers. The findings of this study give building administrators and staff development leaders insight into current instructional practices of teachers. Additionally, a general measure of assessment literacy establishes a baseline from which educational leaders can develop future training to raise the assessment literacy of teachers

This thesis grounds the design of learning technologies in cognitive learning theory to explore deeper formative measurement of the learning process. This work implements Graspable Math (GM; Ottmar, Landy, Weitnauer, Goldstone, 2015), a dynamic learning technology that has been designed using perceptual-motor learning theory, which has been shown to have a strong connection to mathematical reasoning (Kirshner, 1989; Kellman, Massey, & Son, 2010; Goldstone, Landy, & Son, 2010). With this dynamic mathematics learning technology, we can measure the algebraic problem solving process in ways that are not possible with pencil and paper or other more traditional learning technologies. By collecting this data, this research will explore how to move beyond traditional correctness-based assessment and design more formative measures of the learning process. This work provides a rich perspective on the evolution of research on mathematical proficiency, how this research is applied in practice, and an in-depth example of how one technology-based learning environment has been developed to measure mathematical proficiency. This work has three main objectives: 1) develop a theoretical framework to assess mathematical proficiency within GM, 2) explore GM-based measures of mathematical proficiency across K-12 populations, and 3) design GM-based tools that are grounded in theory on mathematical proficiency. This work first presents a conceptual model that maps student behavior data measured through GM onto the five theoretical strands of mathematical proficiency as defined by the National Research Council’s 2001 publication, Adding it Up. The first study reveals underlying constructs in Elementary student data and suggests there is an added benefit of including these formative measures within predictive models. Above and beyond background characteristics and summative measures of knowledge, formative measures of the learning process revealed subtle interactions based on student behaviors and prior knowledge. These constructs also show potential in mapping onto certain strands of mathematical proficiency. The second study compares underlying constructs within Elementary data to High School data using exploratory factor analysis and finds similar factors across both populations. These results suggest that certain constructs may underlie different age groups and have the potential to be used as measures of mathematical proficiency. While the first two sections describe the definition and measurement of mathematical proficiency within GM, the final section explores the implementation of these measures within the design process of new GM-based activities for students and tools for teachers. Ultimately, the goal of this work is to serve as an example method for other researchers, educators, and designers to move beyond summative measures of assessment and enhance the formative assessment capabilities of learning technologies by grounding measures in theories of learning.

This study analyzed the required inclusion of school test scores in the yearly evaluation of school principals within the current school reform and standards and accountability movements of both the federal and state departments of education. Extant data from a single school district in Oregon was used for this study, and included: (a) district-wide elementary principal summative performance evaluation scores, (b) district-wide fourth and fifth grade fall and spring reading curriculum-based measures scores curriculum-based measures, (c) 2013 and 2014 spring reading scores from the Oregon Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (OAKS-R), and (d) student demographic variables. The student non-academic predictor variables (demographic risk factors) included in the study were (a) attendance, (b) English Language Proficiency (ELP), (c) Free and Reduced Meals (FARMS), (d) percent Other-than-White, and (e) Special Education. Multiple regression analyses were used to determine which assessment and/or non-assessment factors accounted for differences between principals’ summative evaluation scores. The results indicated that Summative Principal Ratings are poor predictors of the academic success of all students whether using large-scale summative assessment (OAKS-R) or formative assessments (easyCBM), with all measures only accounting for a miniscule portion of the Summative Principal Rating variance. However, demographic variables were slightly more related to the Summative Principal Rating. Practical implications of using student test scores to hold principals accountable for the academic results of all students are discussed in relation to district administrative policy and placement procedures for administrators and teachers, examining the behaviors and practices of teachers’ whose students have shown the most gains, and using these successful teacher practices a basis for teacher-to-teacher district-wide professional development. Finally, suggestions for future research in the areas of improving principal evaluation systems and the study of direct and indirect impacts principals have on student success and achievements are discussed.

Research has shown that giving quality feedback to students, which is an aspect of formative assessment, is a high-yield strategy that educators can use to advance academic achievement and support students in their learning process. The study took place in a Virginia school division where formative assessment was not a division-wide initiative used to increase student achievement. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative case study was to identify the perceptions of teachers and students concerning formative feedback and distinguish the types of written feedback that may influence student learning. Bandura's social cognitive theory of self-efficacy and motivation provided the conceptual framework for this study. Teachers' and students' perspectives and student work samples were analyzed to determine the types of feedback that influenced students' learning in mathematics and to gain an understanding of teachers' and students' perceptions of written formative feedback. Data were collected through interviews with 10 elementary teachers and 20 elementary third through fifth grade students at 2 elementary schools and by collecting 318 work samples of these students. Themes emerged from inductive coding, and teachers' feedback was categorized using a feedback typology to determine the types of feedback teachers gave students. The teachers' and students' understanding of written formative feedback varied but both groups found written descriptive feedback aligned with learning outcomes were most beneficial. The results could serve to improve professional development for teachers on formative feedback, which could increase student learning.

Inconsistent math assessment practices do not accurately represent and communicate student mathematics achievement. Because of inconsistencies in assessment practices, local middle school mathematics teachers in an urban school district in the northwestern United States piloted the use of multiple formative assessments. The purpose of this study was to compare mathematics achievement, growth, and course percentage grades for students who have multiple formative assessment attempts compared to students who are not provided multiple assessment attempts. Theoretical foundations originated from Black and Wiliam, supporting the use of formative assessment for a positive impact on student learning. A quantitative, ex post facto quasi-experimental design was used. The research question focused on the statistical differences in course percentage grade, state standardized testing score, and growth score on state standardized math tests between groups of students who were allowed multiple formative assessment options and those who were not. Data were analyzed using an independent samples t test and a one-way MANOVA, which showed a statistically significant difference for student course percentage grade. Findings were used to produce a 3-day professional development program supporting teachers' use of formative assessment in mathematics classes. The findings will inform educational stakeholders' decisions regarding the use of multiple assessment attempts and differences between this specific formative assessment strategy and student mathematics assessment performance to promote positive social change. Positive social changes may include increased awareness of how multiple assessments may affect student growth, course percentage grades, and state testing scores.

<p>Syftet med vår studie var att beskriva och analysera hur en grupp specialpedagoger arbetar med formativ undervisning. Formativ undervisning kan enligt aktuella forskningsresultat ha positiva effekter på svagpresterande elevers lärande. Vi har observerat sex specialpedagoger i deras verksamhet. Dessa sex har också sedan intervjuats. Samtliga informanter arbetar med elever i skolåren 6-9. Det är den empiri samt relevant litteratur som examensarbetet bygger på. Resultatet visade att formativ undervisning förekom i väldigt liten utsträckning. Det visade också att de specialpedagoger som ingick i vår studie inte var förtrogna med begreppet formativ undervisning. Den pedagogiska forskning som finns i ämnet är utförd i olika klassrumssituationer. Vår undersökning visar på svårigheter att överföra den till den typ av undervisningssituation som specialpedagogerna i vår studie arbetar i.</p>

Syftet med vår studie var att beskriva och analysera hur en grupp specialpedagoger arbetar med formativ undervisning. Formativ undervisning kan enligt aktuella forskningsresultat ha positiva effekter på svagpresterande elevers lärande. Vi har observerat sex specialpedagoger i deras verksamhet. Dessa sex har också sedan intervjuats. Samtliga informanter arbetar med elever i skolåren 6-9. Det är den empiri samt relevant litteratur som examensarbetet bygger på. Resultatet visade att formativ undervisning förekom i väldigt liten utsträckning. Det visade också att de specialpedagoger som ingick i vår studie inte var förtrogna med begreppet formativ undervisning. Den pedagogiska forskning som finns i ämnet är utförd i olika klassrumssituationer. Vår undersökning visar på svårigheter att överföra den till den typ av undervisningssituation som specialpedagogerna i vår studie arbetar i.

This study examines the relationship between the use of formative assessment in the middle school classroom and select causal factors. For the purpose of this study, the definition of formative assessments is that proposed by Heritage, Kim, Vendliski, and Herman as, “A systematic process to continuously gather evidence and provide feedback about learning while instruction is under way” (2009, p. 1). Factors affecting the use of formative assessments explored in this study include leadership behaviors, professional development, the influence of instructional coaches, and aspects of teacher demographics. Through a mixed-method design, utilizing both a quantitative and qualitative approach, data were collected and analyzed. The quantitative data showed no any significant relationship between formative assessment and the independent variables of leadership behavior, professional development, and the influence of instructional coaches. The data showed that in the area of teacher demographics, there did exist a significant relationship between the grade level taught and the use of formative assessments, suggesting that teachers in the highest grade level (grade 8) had the highest frequency of use. Data collected through the qualitative research revealed that the school in which more frequent professional development training was provided by the school’s instructional coach in the area of formative assessment strategies, the frequency of their use was more prevalent. The findings suggest that the influence of the instructional coach is a factor in teachers’ use of formative assessment. Results from this study add to the body of evidence relating to use of formative assessment. As a result of the findings, the position of instructional coach and how they impact student achievement is recommended for further study.

Assessment is one of the key strategies that, if used correctly, can effectively enhance student learning. This study explores senior ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) students' experiences of and attitudes towards formative assessment in the mainstream classroom. The purpose of this study was to investigate how formative assessment might be used effectively to enhance ESOL students' learning from the perspective of senior ESOL students. Data were collected using mixed methods including questionnaires and follow-up interviews with a range of participants from different ethnic backgrounds. One hundred ESOL students participated in the questionnaire and 22 were subsequently interviewed. The questionnaire provided data on the majority ESOL students' experiences and attitudes. Then the interviews allowed participants to describe their experiences and attitudes in more detail. The qualitative methodology used also provided the opportunity for the participants to explain any possible reasons for their attitudes. This study revealed that all the participants had some experiences in some of the formative assessment activities used in classroom. The participants' perspectives also indicated that ESOL students' high expectations for their academic achievement relied on teachers' understanding of their needs as well as effective classroom practice. Feedback was the most favoured formative assessment method by the ESOL students because the students could find out what they had done correctly and where they had gone wrong. Questioning was not liked by the participants, partly because of the language barrier limiting their understanding of the questions, partly because of the way teachers asked the questions (i.e. no wait-time), and partly because of cultural sensitivity (i.e. not wanting to draw attention to oneself). However, the value of questioning as a formative assessment method was recognised by a number of the participants. Self-assessment was liked and found to be useful by some participants. Peer assessment was not liked because of the students' mistrust of their peers' ability to mark their work correctly. Sharing learning objectives and assessment criteria was regarded as an important way to enhance learning as long as teachers provided clear explanations. The study raises questions about the effectiveness of existing formative assessment activities used in classroom and suggests some specific strategies that may help ESOL students learn more effectively. This study clearly indicates that not all formative assessments are equally effective to students of different backgrounds. The choice of formative assessment methods and the way they are administered in class are both important in determining their success for the participants. ESOL students have their own characteristics and needs (e.g. language limitations) and these should to be taken into consideration when choosing and implementing formative assessment methods. The study is of interest in particular to those who teach ESOL students in mainstream classrooms but also has strong links to the field of cross cultural communication, and to the study of effective teaching and learning.