Messenger RNA (mRNA) is transcribed by RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and has to undergo multiple processing events before it can be translated into a protein: a cap structure is added to its 5’ end, noncoding, intervening sequences (introns) are removed and coding exons are ligated together and a poly(A) tail is added to its 3’end. Splicing, the process of intron removal, is carried out in the spliceosome, a megacomplex comprehending up to 300 proteins. The core components of the spliceosome that directly interact with the pre-mRNA are the small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs). They consist of one of the U-rich snRNAs U1, U2, U4, U5 or U6 together with several particle-specific proteins and core proteins. All mRNA processing events can occur co-transcriptionally, i.e. while the RNA is still attached to the gene via Pol II. The in vivo studies of co-transcriptional RNA processing events had been possible only in special biological systems by immunoelectron microscopy and only recently, Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) made it possible to investigate cotranscriptional splicing factor assembly on genes. My thesis work is divided into two parts: Part I shows that the core components of the splicing machinery are recruited co-transcriptionally to mammalian genes in vivo by ChIP. The co-transcriptional splicing factor recruitment is dependent on active transcription and the presence of introns in genes. Furthermore, a new assay was developed that allows for the first time the direct monitoring of co-transcriptional splicing in human cells. The topoisomerase I inhibitor camptothecin increases splicing factor accumulation on the c-fos gene as well as co-transcriptional splicing levels, which provides direct evidence that co-transcriptional splicing events depend on the kinetics of RNA synthesis. Part II of the thesis is aimed to investigate whether Pol II has a functional role in the biogenesis of the U6 snRNA, which is the RNA part of the U6 snRNP involved in splicing. Pol III had been shown to transcribe the U6 snRNA gene, but ChIP experiments revealed that Pol II is associated with all the active U6 snRNA gene promoters. Pol II inhibition studies uncovered that U6 snRNA expression and probably 3’end formation is dependent on Pol II.

O presente estudo tem por objetivo analisar as reflexões sobre a prática de ensino, feitas pelo próprio pesquisador enquanto professor de francês, língua estrangeira, em contexto exolíngue de ensino-aprendizagem, por meio da análise de seus relatos de vida ou narrativas (auto)biográficas (Connelly & Clandinin, 1995; Zabalza, 2002; Souza, 2008; Holly, 2013; Nóvoa, 2013) acompanhados de seus diários de aula. Como forma discursiva, os relatos permitem ao narrador a rememoração e o resgate de experiências vividas; dessa forma, a narrativa apresenta-se, igualmente, como um retrato da situação no momento acontecido, trazendo consigo uma significação social, cheia de descrições e informações sobre um determinado contexto sociocultural e permitindo aos indivíduos, envolvidos no relato ou não, a compreensão do vivido pela perspectiva do narrador. Os relatos aqui trazidos dizem respeito à minha formação docente como um todo. Quanto aos diários de aula, eles concernem as atividades didáticas que realizei nos cursos FLE, FOS, FOU do CFIPOLI- USP. A presente pesquisa se define como uma investigação qualitativa, feita à luz da metodologia de pesquisa heurística de Clark E. Moustakas (1994). O registro de vida e das aulas constituem um espaço de expressão e de elaboração do pensamento do professor, no qual ele se expõe como profissional e pessoa; ao (se) expor, ele explica e interpreta sua ação pedagógica em aula e fora dela. Desta forma, como sujeitonarrador trago questões que influenciaram minhas ações e decisões pedagógicas e complemento os relatos com estudos específicos e analíticos, além de reflexões sobre práticas de aulas apresentadas. Todo esse processo, apenas possível pela ação reflexiva docente, contamina todos os envolvidos gerando um processo consciente e reflexivo também no(s) aluno(s). / The present study aimed to analyze the reflections about the teaching practice performed by the researcher as a French teacher, foreign language, in exolingual context of teaching and learning, by analyzing his life reports or autobiographical narratives (Connelly & Clandinin, 1995; Zabalza, 2002; Souza, 2008; Holly, 2013; Nóvoa, 2013) together with his class diary. As discursive form, the reports allows the narrator the recalling and the rescue of past experiences, thus, the narrative is presented as a picture of the situation from the that moment, bringing with it a social meaning, full of descriptions and information about a certain sociocultural context and allowing the subjects, involved in the report or not, the understanding of moment by the narrator perspective. The reports of this article are about the authors graduation being a teacher as a whole. About the class diary, they report the didactics activities performed in courses of FLE, FOS, FOU of CFI-POLI-USP. The present research is defined as a qualitative investigation, done by the methodology of heuristic research of Clark E. Moustakas (1994). The class and life records constitute a space of expression and development of teachers thought, exposing him professionally and as a person, doing it, the teacher explains and interprets his pedagogical actions inside and outside the class. Thus, as narrator subject, bringing issues that influenced the actions and pedagogical decisions and adding the reports with specific and analytics studies, besides the reflections about the practice of presented classes. All this process, only is possible by the teachers reflective action, contaminates everyone involved promoting a conscious and reflective process for students also.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: β-fructofuranosidases are hydrolytic enzymes that act on sucrose to yield the products glucose and fructose. Under high substrate conditions these enzymes display fructosyltransferase activity which results in the synthesis of fructooligosaccharides (FOS). Some enzymes display higher propensities for FOS synthesis than others, with the determinants of this activity remaining unclear. The consumption of FOS produces a prebiotic effect that positively alters the composition of the colonic microflora, and as a result is linked to improved human and animal health. The increased demand for FOS has necessitated the industrial production of these nutraceuticals. In enzymatic sucrose biotransformation processes operating at high substrate loading and temperatures between 50 and 60°C, β-fructofuranosidase activity is negatively influenced by glucose product inhibition and thermal instability. The aim of this study was therefore to engineer the Aspergillus japonicus β-fructofuranosidase, FopA, to improve a FOS synthesis bioprocess. A dual approach was employed to engineer FopA so as to increase the probability of obtaining an improved enzyme variant(s). A random mutagenesis approach was applied to harness the potential of the randomness of introduced mutations as precise structural knowledge of the enzyme regions involved in the phenotypic presentation of product inhibition, specific activity and thermal stability was unavailable. A semi-rational approach afforded the additional opportunity to reduce the number of variants to be screened, yet theoretically increased the functional content of the library. This study details the development of a method to rapidly quantify FOS using Fourier transform mid infrared attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis. The method offers improvements over conventionally used high performance liquid chromatography in terms of reduced sample analysis times and the absence of toxic waste products. This is the first report on the direct screening of an enzyme variant library for FOS synthesis to identify improved variants and will significantly support future engineering of β-fructofuranosidases using random mutagenesis approaches. The random mutagenesis approach yielded a variant displaying limited relief from glucose inhibition. At the peak difference in performance, the variant produced 28% more FOS from the same amount of sucrose, when compared to the parent. The semi-rational approach, using a combined crystal structure and evolutionary-guided approach, yielded a four amino acid combination variant displaying improved specific activity and thermostability that was able to reduce the time to completion of an industrial-like FOS synthesis reaction by 26%. The positive outcome of the semi-rational approach showed that engineering loops regions in an enzyme is a feasible strategy to improve both specific activity and thermostability, most probably due to the modification of enzyme structural flexibility. A bioinformatic tool that enables the identification of β-fructofuranosidases displaying high-level FOS synthesis from protein sequence alone was also developed during the study. These investigations revealed conserved sequence motifs characteristic of enzymes displaying low- and high-level FOS synthesis and a structural loop, unique to the latter group, that were readily applicable identifiers of FOS synthesis capacity. The tool presented may also be useful to improve the understanding of the structure-function relationships of β-fructofuranosidases by facilitating the identification of variations in groups of enzymes that have been functionally sub-classified. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: β-fruktofuranosidases is hidrolitiese ensieme wat op sukrose inwerk en glukose en fruktose as produkte vorm. Onder toestande met hoë substraatkondisies vertoon hierdie ensieme fruktosieltransferase-aktiwiteit wat tot die sintese van frukto-oligosakkariede (FOS) lei. Sommige ensieme neig na ʼn hoër FOS-sintese as ander, maar die bepalende faktore vir hierdie aktiwiteit is nog onbekend. Die verbruik van FOS veroorsaak ʼn prebiotiese effek wat die samestelling van kolon mikroflora positief beïnvloed en met verhoogde mens- en dieregesondheid verbind word. Die verhoogde aanvraag vir FOS het die industriële produksie van hierdie nutraseutiese middel genoodsaak. Tydens ensiemgedrewe sukrose-biotransformasieprosesse by hoë substraatladings en temperature tussen 50 en 60 °C, word β-fruktofuranosidase-aktiwiteit negatief deur glukose produkonderdrukking en termiese onstabiliteit beïnvloed. Die doel van hierdie studie was dus om die Aspergillus japonicus β-fruktofuranosidase, FopA, vir ʼn verbeterde FOS-sintese bioproses te manipuleer. ʼn Tweeledige benadering is vir FopA manipulasie gevolg om die waarskynlikheid van verbeterde variant(e) te verhoog. ʼn Lukrake mutagenese benadering, wat die potensiaal van ingevoegde mutasie ewekansigheid inspan, is in die lig van onvoldoende akkurate kennis van die strukturele gedeeltes betrokke by produkinhibisie-, spesifieke aktiwiteit- en termiese stabiliteit fenotipes gevolg. Die toepassing van ʼn semi-rasionele benadering het ook geleentheid vir die sifting van ʼn kleiner variantbibioloteek geskep, terwyl die funksionele inhoud teoreties verhoog word. Die studie beskryf die ontwikkeling van ʼn metode vir die vinnige kwantifisering van FOS, gebaseer op Fourier transform middel infrarooi geattenueerde totale refleksie spektroskopie en meerveranderlike data-analise. Dit is die eerste melding van ʼn direkte sifting van ʼn ensiemvariantversameling vir FOS-sintese om verbeterde variante te identifiseer, en kan die toekomstige manipulasie van β-fruktofuranosidases deur middel van lukrake mutagenese-benaderings beduidend ondersteun. Die lukrake mutagenese-benadering het ʼn variant met beperkte opheffing van glukose-onderdrukking gelewer. By die punt waar die prestasie die meeste verskil, het die variant 28% meer FOS vanaf dieselfde hoeveelheid sukrose geproduseer in vergelyking met die ouer-ensiem. Die semi-rasionele benadering, gegrond op ʼn kombinasie van kristalstruktuur en evolusionêre-geleide benaderings, het ʼn vier-aminosuurkombinasie variant met hoër spesifieke aktiwiteit en termostabiliteit gelewer wat die voltooiingstyd van ʼn tipiese industriële FOS sintesereaksie met 26% kon verkort. Die positiewe uitkoms van die semi-rasionele benadering het aangedui dat manipulasie van die lusgedeeltes in ʼn ensiem ʼn lewensvatbare strategie is om beide spesifieke aktiwiteit en termostabiliteit te verbeter, moontlik as gevolg van wysigings in die buigsaamheid van die ensiemstruktuur. ʼn Bioïnformatika-hulpmiddel vir die identifikasie van β-fruktofuranosidases met hoë vlakke van FOS-sintese op grond van proteïenvolgordes is ook tydens die studie ontwikkel. Motiewe met gekonserveerde volgordes kenmerkend van lae- en hoë-vlak FOS-produserende ensieme en ʼn strukturele lus, uniek tot die laasgenoemde groep, is tydens die ondersoek onthul wat as maklike identifiseerders van FOS-sintesekapasiteit kan dien. Die voorgestelde hulpmiddel kan ook nuttig wees om die struktuur-funksie-verwantskap van β-fruktofuranosidases beter te verstaan deur die identifikasie van variasie in ensiemgroepe wat funksioneel gesubklassifiseer is.

In the first few decades of the nineteenth century, Americans and immigrants moved to New Orleans hoping to take advantage of the opportunities the city offered. Many American citizens moved from cities like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Recognizing the lack of social welfare programs and assistance given to the poor, a group of women established the Female Orphan Society. From its creation, the Female Orphan Society worked in providing aid to indigent mothers and their children through providing religious, vocational, and educational training. In a short time, the FOS emerged as the only private, Protestant female refuge for immigrant families and their children in New Orleans. This involvement elevated the role of the asylum in the city and heightened the influence of an institution run by southern, upper-class white women.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / The investigation into the relationship between neural plasticity in the rat forebrain associated with opiate-induced behaviours yielded two major results. The major finding of the functional neuroanatomy of acute morphine dependence was that doses of naloxone that induced hyperalgesia following a brief exposure to morphine, in previously drug-naïve rats, caused a specific induction of the inducible transcription factor (itf) proteins c-Fos and zif268 in the extended amygdala. Moreover, doses of naloxone that caused a simple reversal in morphine analgesia failed to induce itf proteins in these same brain regions. This increase in itf proteins was specific to regions of the extended amygdala that receive and process nociceptive information relayed via the spino-parabrachio-amygdaloid pathway and was not observed in other regions that are involved in supraspinal pain modulation such as the rostral ventromedial medulla and the periaqueductal gray. We also found that acute morphine increased c-Fos protein in the basolateral amygdala and the major output nucleus of the central amygdala the medial subdivision. Acute morphine also up-regulated c-Fos protein in striatal, midbrain, and hypothalamic nuclei. A unique finding of the current study was that prolonged exposure to morphine was required to induce c-Fos in these brain regions, as the subsequent administration of naloxone 30-minutes after morphine either reversed or blocked this induction. These results indicate the potential role of the amygdala in analgesia following systemic morphine and in pain facilitation during acute morphine abstinence. Investigation into the neurons and circuitry that undergo long-term neuroplasticity in response to repeated morphine exposure revealed that network-level changes in the distribution of Fos protein in the nucleus accumbens and striatum predicted both tolerance to catalepsy and psychomotor sensitisation. Drug-naïve rats became profoundly cataleptic following morphine, an effect that rats with a drug-history became tolerant. Rats with a history of morphine exposure showed an increase in stereotyped behaviours compared to drug-naïve rats. The major finding of this study was that a shift in the induction of c-Fos protein from a matrix predominance in drug-naïve rats toward a patch predominance in drug-sensitised rats in the accumbens core predicted both tolerance to catalepsy and sensitisation of oral stereotyped behaviours. Acute injection of morphine in a drug-naïve rat induced catalepsy and increased the number of c-Fos-positive neurons in matrix striatopallidal projection neurons of the rostral accumbens core. An increase in activity of striatopallidal projection neurons, which give rise to the indirect pathway, could potentially increase inhibitory drive to the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN). The PPN, long known as a site of termination for basal ganglia output, is thought to direct the outflow of incentive-motivational and sensorimotor information from the nucleus accumbens to pons, medullary, and spinal cord nuclei translating the incentive impact of the stimuli into appropriate motor, autonomic and emotive responses (Winn et al., 1997). Inhibition of this nucleus would cause the animal to be unable to initiate a movement and in effect lock up, which is precisely what cataleptic postures look like. In contrast c-Fos-positive neurons were decreased in the rostral matrix and increased in patch striatonigral projection neurons along the rostro-caudal extent of the accumbens core when morphine was administered to drug-sensitised rats. Striatonigral neurons located in the patch give rise to the direct pathway innervating the dopaminergic neurons in both substantia pars compacta and the dopamine rich islands in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (Berendse et al., 1992; Gerfen, 1992; Furuta et al., 2002). Activity of this pathway is thought to be involved in the initiation of movement (Gerfen, 1992; Gerfen and Wilson, 1996), however, when this pathway is overstimulated as is the case when morphine is injected in drug-sensitised rats this could potentially cause increased activity of PPN neurons leading to repetitive psychomotor behaviours or stereotypy. This data adds to the growing body of evidence that suggests that long-term neuroadaptations induced by drugs of abuse including morphine that lead to behavioural sensitisation involves the circuitry that includes the nucleus accumbens.

Estímuls estressants bàsicament emocionals, com la immobilització en taula (IMO), exerceixen efectes a llarg termini sobre l'activitat de l'eix hipotalàmic-pituïtari-adrenal (HPA) en rates adultes. Aquests efectes es caracteritzen per una desensibilització, primer a nivell perifèric (d'adrenocorticotropina (ACTH) y de corticosterona al cap d'uns dies) i més tard a nivell central (d'mRNA de corticoliberina (CRF) en el nucli paraventricular de l'hipotàlem (PVN) al cap d'unes setmanes), de la resposta d'aquest eix endocrí quan s'exposen els animals per segona vegada al mateix estrès. Aquest fenomen presenta força similituds amb l'anomenada síndrome d'estrès post-traumàtic en humans, i podria emmarcar-se dins del concepte general de plasticitat sinàptica.Les preguntes que es pretengueren respondre amb aquest treball foren les següents: (i) es poden generalitzar aquests efectes a un estrès físic-immune com l'administració de lipopolisacàrid bacterià (LPS)?, (ii) és el fenomen específic de l'estímul aplicat?, (iii) té el fenomen un correlat en l'activitat transcripcional primerenca en el PVN?, i (iv) quines són les àrees cerebrals sensibles a una experiència prèvia amb estrès?.S'utilitzaren rates mascle adultes de la soca Sprague-Dawley, que s'estressaren només dues vegades per IMO o LPS, separades en el temps entre 1 i 4 setmanes. S'analitzaren en plasma ACTH i corticosterona per radioimmunoanàlisi, i factor de necrosi tumoral (TNF)-a per ELISA. Es van mesurar els nivells d'mRNA de c-fos, CRF i receptor de glucocorticoides (GR) i d'hnRNA de CRF i vasopressina (AVP) per hibridació in situ.L'LPS reduí la resposta de l'mRNA de CRF en el PVN al mateix estímul 4, però no 2, setmanes més tard; la resposta perifèrica, així com la del TNF-a, també fou menor, tant 1 com 4 setmanes més tard. L'LPS bloquejà la hipotèrmia per LPS 4 setmanes més tard. No s'observà desensibilització creuada entre IMO i LPS en cap dels paràmetres de l'eix HPA estudiats. La IMO prèvia reduí la resposta de l'mRNA de c-fos a la IMO en el PVN, tant 1 com 4 setmanes més tard, així com la de l'hnRNA de CRF només a les 4 setmanes. S'observaren efectes similars amb LPS a nivell de l'mRNA de c-fos, però no d'hnRNA de CRF, a les 4 setmanes. La IMO o l'LPS previs no van alterar la resposta de l'hnRNA d'AVP al mateix estímul. En general, no s'observaren efectes creuats consistents entre LPS i IMO a nivell d'hnRNA de CRF o de AVP, o d'mRNA de c-fos en el PVN. La IMO o l'LPS no van modificar els nivells basals d'mRNA de GR a la formació hipocampal i al PVN 4 setmanes després.El patró d'activació cerebral de l'mRNA de c-fos per IMO o LPS fou diferent. Les àrees cerebrals sensibles a la IMO prèvia foren la divisió ventral del septum lateral, el PVN, l'amígdala medial, la divisió medial ventral del nucli de l'estria terminal (BST), el locus coeruleus (LC) i el nucli del tracte solitari. En el cas de l'LPS, aquestes àrees foren el PVN, l'amígdala central, la divisió lateral del BST i el LC.Dels resultats obtinguts es desprèn que els efectes a llarg termini de l'estrès es poden generalitzar a estímuls de naturalesa física-immune com l'LPS. A més, el fenomen sembla ser específic de l'estímul aplicat i es detecta també en l'activitat transcripcional primerenca en el PVN. Finalment, postulem que les estructures cerebrals més probablement responsables dels efectes a llarg termini de l'estrès serien àrees del sistema límbic com l'amígdala i el BST. / Estímulos estresantes básicamente emocionales, como la inmovilización en tabla (IMO), ejercen efectos a largo plazo sobre la actividad del eje hipotalámico-pituitario-adrenal (HPA) en ratas adultas. Estos efectos se caracterizan por una desensibilización, primero a nivel periférico (de adrenocorticotropina (ACTH) y de corticosterona después de unos días) y más tarde a nivel central (de mRNA de corticoliberina (CRF) en el núcleo paraventricular del hipotálamo (PVN) después de unas semanas), de la respuesta de este eje endocrino cuando se expone a los animales al mismo estrés por segunda vez. Este fenómeno presenta similitudes con el síndrome de estrés post-traumático en humanos, y podría enmarcarse dentro del concepto general de plasticidad sináptica. Las preguntas que se pretendieron responder en este trabajo fueron: (i) ¿se pueden generalizar estos efectos a un estrés físico-inmune como la administración de lipopolisacárido bacteriano?, (ii) ¿es el fenómeno específico del estímulo aplicado?, (iii) ¿se correlaciona el fenómeno con la actividad transcripcional temprana en el PVN?, y (iv) ¿cuáles son las áreas cerebrales sensibles a una experiencia previa con estrés? Se utilizaron ratas macho adultas de la cepa Sprague-Dawley, que se estresaron solo en dos ccasiones por IMO o LPS, separadas en el tiempo entre 1 y 4 semanas. Se analizaron en plasma ACTH y corticosterona por radioinmunoanálisis, y factor de necrosis tumoral (TNF)-a mediante ELISA. Se determinaron los niveles de mRNA de c-fos, CRF y receptor de glucocorticoides (GR) y de hnRNA de CRF y vasopresina (AVP) por hibridación in situ. El LPS redujo la respuesta del mRNA de CRF en el PVN al mismo estímulo 4, pero no 2, semanas más tarde; la respuesta periférica y la del TNF-a también fue menor, tanto 1 como 4 semanas más tarde. El LPS bloqueó la hipotermia por LPS 4 semanas más tarde. No se observó desensibilización cruzada entre IMO y LPS en ninguno de los parámetros del eje HPA estudiados. La IMO previa redujo la respuesta del mRNA de c-fos a la IMO en el PVN, tanto 1 como 4 semanas después, y la del hnRNA de CRF a las 4 semanas. Se observaron efectos similares con LPS a nivel del mRNA de c-fos, pero no de hnRNA de CRF, a las 4 semanas. La IMO o el LPS previos no alteraron la respuesta del hnRNA de AVP al mismo estímulo. En general, no se observaron efectos cruzados consistentes entre IMO y LPS a nivel de hnRNA de CRF o de AVP, o de mRNA de c-fos en el PVN. La IMO o el LPS no modificaron los niveles basales de mRNA de GR en la formación hipocampal y en el PVN 4 semanas después. El patrón de activación cerebral del mRNA de c-fos por IMO o LPS fué distinto. Las áreas cerebrales sensibles a la IMO previa fueron la división ventral del septum lateral, el PVN, la amígdala medial, la división medial ventral del núcleo de la estría terminal (BST), el locus coeruleus (LC) y el núcleo del haz solitario. En el caso del LPS, estas áreas fueron el PVN, la amígdala central, la división lateral del BST y el LC. De los resultados obtenidos se desprende que los efectos a largo plazo del estrés se pueden generalizar a estímulos de naturaleza física-inmune como el LPS. Además, el fenómeno parece específico del estímulo aplicado y se detecta también en la actividad transcripcional temprana en el PVN. Finalmente, postulamos que las estructuras cerebrales más probablemente responsables de los efectos a largo plazo del estrés serían áreas del sistema límbico como la amígdala y el BST. / Emotional stressors, such as immobilisation (IMO), can exert long-term effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-axis (HPA) activity in adult rats. These effects are characterised by a peripheral (adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and corticosterone, days later) and central (corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the PVN, weeks later) desensitisation of the response of this endocrine axis when the animals are submitted to the same stressor a second time. This phenomenon shares some commonalities with posttraumatic stress disorder in humans, and might fall within the framework of neuroplasticity.The aims of this work attempted to adress the following questions: (i) can this effects be generalised to stressors of physical-immunological nature such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS)?, (ii) is this phenomenon specific for the stressor applied?, (iii) is this phenomenon reflected in the early transcriptional activity in the PVN?, and (iv) which are the brain areas sensitive to a single previous stress exposure?Male Sprague-Dawley adult rats were stressed only two times by IMO or LPS, 1 or 4 weeks ahead. Plasma ACTH and corticosterone were determined by radioinmunoassay, and tumor necorsis factor (TNF)-a by ELISA. C-fos mRNA , CRF and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and CRF and AVP hnRNA levels were quantifyed by in situ hybridisation.Previous LPS reduced the CRF mRNA response in the PVN to the same stimulus 4, but not 2, weeks later; the peripheral response, and also the response of TNF-a, was also reduced, both 1 and 4 weeks later. Previous LPS abolished the LPS-induced hypothermia 4 weeks later. There was no cross-desensitisation between IMO and LPS in any of the HPA axis parameters studied. Previous IMO reduced the c-fos mRNA response to IMO in the PVN, both 1 and 4 weeks later, and also the CRF hnRNA response only at 4 weeks. Similar effects were observed with LPS on c-fos mRNA, but not CRF hnRNA, at 4 weeks. Previous IMO or LPS did not modify the AVP hnRNA response to the same stimulus. In general, there were no consitent cross-desensitisation effects between IMO and LPS on CRF or AVO hnRNA, or c-fos mRNA in the PVN. IMO or LPS did not modify basal GR mRNA levels in the hippoccampal formation or PVN 4 weeks later.There was a different pattern of c-fos mRNA activation in the brain by IMO or LPS. The areas sensitive to a previous IMO session were the ventral dicision of the lateral septum, PVN, medial amigdala, medial ventral division of the bed nucleus (BST) locus coeruleus (LC) and nucleus of the solitary tract. In the case of LPS, these areas were the PVN, central amigdala, lateral division of the BST and LC.Freom these results we can conclude that long-term effects of stress can be generalised to stressors of physical-immunological nature such as LPS. In addition, this phenomenon seems to be stressor-specific and can be detected on the early transcriptional activity in the PVN. Finally, we suggest that the brain sites that would most probably be responsible of the long-term effects of stress are areas of the lymbic system such as the amigdala and BST.

Adolescence in humans is a vulnerable period for illicit drug use, and teenage onset of drug use is associated with long-term addiction. Adolescent sensitivity to drug reinforcement, relapse, and withdrawal has not been explored thoroughly in animal models, especially considering opiate drugs such as morphine and heroin. The present series of studies profiles adolescent sensitivity to opiates using adolescent and adult male rats to test for age differences in opiate self-administration, reinstatement, withdrawal signs, locomotor sensitization, and even brain activation during drug-seeking. To test for acute sensitivity to the reinforcing effects of morphine or heroin, we compared patterns of self-administration by adolescent vs. adult male rats on various schedules of reinforcement, drug doses, and daily access conditions. Using fixed ratio schedules and short daily access, adolescents self-administered less morphine than adults, an effect commonly interpreted as higher drug sensitivity. In contrast, escalation of morphine intake under long access conditions was similar across ages, as was heroin intake using fixed or progressive ratio schedules of reinforcement. To test for enduring effects of opiates, we compared opiate-seeking in the absence of the drug in tests of extinction responding and cue-induced reinstatement. Regardless of the acute effects of morphine or heroin, all adolescent treatment groups showed attenuated opiate-seeking compared to adults. Next we considered behavioral correlates of reinforcement, drug withdrawal and locomotor sensitization, during and after escalating doses of experimenter-administered heroin. Consistent with attenuated opiate-seeking, adolescents exhibited attenuated somatic and locomotor signs of withdrawal compared with adults, although locomotor sensitization was similar across ages. Finally, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is a brain region heavily implicated in drug reinforcement, so we used tissue levels of Fos-like immunoreactivity to compare activation of this region by heroin-seeking. Indeed mPFC activation was absent in rats that self-administered heroin as adolescents, but robust in adults. Together these behavioral and neuroanatomical results surprisingly suggest that adolescent male rats are less sensitive than adults to some acute and enduring effects of opiates, and may predict better response profiles among younger human addicts. Through future studies, adolescent rats may provide a new model to help identify treatments for drug abuse.

Females are disproportionately affected by stress- related mood disorders. Child abuse is the single greatest environmental risk factor for mood disorders. An animal model of child abuse, juvenile social subjugation (JSS), was used to determine whether males and females differentially process stress, specifically in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST). Rats (n=36) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: JSS, Benign Control (BC) or Handled Control (HC). Following this procedure, brains were processed for Fos, which indicates neural activity. It was hypothesized that the JSS condition would evoke more neural activation than other conditions and would do so more in females. Across both sexes, we hypothesized there would be significantly more activation in the posterior BST than in the anterior BST. Based on earlier research, we hypothesized there would be and a sex difference in total neuron number, favoring males, in the posterior BST.

<p>Adolescence is a critical period for drug addiction in humans. Most lifelong drug addiction is initiated during adolescence and the progression from initial drug use to the expression of addictive behaviors occurs more rapidly during adolescence than in adulthood. The purpose of this work was to examine if the adolescent brain uniquely responds to the addictive stimulant cocaine. This was accomplished by comparing the following measures in adolescent and adult male rats: locomotor responses to cocaine across a range of doses in two acute cocaine binge models, plasma cocaine and brain concentrations, locomotor responses to apomorphine, the relative magnitude of locomotor sensitization induced by a single high dose of cocaine (40 mg/kg), and cocaine-induced c-fos and zif268 expression. We determined that young adolescent (PN 28) rats had greater stereotypy responses to all doses of a repeated dose cocaine binge (15 mg/kg), the highest dose of an escalating dose binge (25 mg/kg), and low dose apomorphine. In addition to showing exaggerated acute locomotor responses to cocaine, young adolescents demonstrated a form of intrabinge sensitization that was absent in adults. Exaggerated adolescent locomotor responses could not be attributed to cocaine metabolism as we did not observe greater cocaine plasma or brain concentrations in adolescents compared to adults. A single high dose of cocaine (40 mg/kg) induced more ambulatory and stereotypy sensitization in young adolescents than adults. Further, the magnitude of the acute locomotor response to cocaine predicted the magnitude of locomotor sensitization in individual adolescents. We also showed that cocaine dose-dependently caused age-specific increases in the expression of the plasticity-associated immediate early genes c-fos and zif268: low dose (10 mg/kg) cocaine caused greater increases in striatal c-fos expression in adolescents whereas high dose (40 mg/kg) cocaine caused greater increases in striatal c-fos and zif268 expression in adults. Both doses of cocaine stimulated bigger increases in cortical zif268 expression in adults compared to adolescents. Finally, we demonstrated that the coordinated expression of striatal c-fos and zif268 develops during adolescence: there was no correlation between striatal c-fos and zif268 expression in individual adolescents but a strong correlation was seen in adults. The results of these experiments demonstrate that adolescents have unique molecular responses to acute cocaine and may help explain how adolescents show unique adaptive changes following continued cocaine use.</p> / Dissertation

名古屋大学博士学位論文 学位の種類 : 医学博士(論文) 学位授与年月日:平成4年9月22日 大野元嗣氏の博士論文として提出された