Magister Scientiae - MSc / The aim of this study was to test whether one could use the same methods as used for sampling heavy metals and apply them to radioactive elements. Furthermore a sampling protocol was developed, the first of its kind, for the sampling of radioactive elements in fractured rock aquifers. This was achieved by initially examining local as well as international manuals and methods. The aforementioned was done in conjunction with a literature review of the movement of radioactive elements in these fractured rock aquifers. Beaufort West was utilised as a study area and the geology, hydrogeology and topography was outlined. Background radioactivity was generally acceptable except for two samples which were anomalously high. Taking cognisance of the methods used, as well as those previously applied in the area and abroad, a sampling protocol for radioactive elements in fractured rock aquifers was developed and attached as an appendix. In conclusion it was suggested that multiple methods be tested on one well in order to check whether similar results would occur. This would thus determine the best applicable methods. Also it was proposed that a new method, called DGT sampling, be applied in order to gain a time weighted average of the heavy metals and radioactive elements in groundwater. It could also be clearly seen, by comparing historical data and the current data, that the methods used for sampling heavy metal can be applied to radioactivity. / South Africa

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The Table Mountain Group (TMG) Aquifer is a huge aquifer system which may provide large bulk water supplies for local municipalities and irrigation water for agriculture in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape Provinces in South Africa. In many locations, water pressure in an aquifer may force groundwater out of ground surface so that the borehole drilled into the aquifer would produce overflow without a pump. Appropriate testing and evaluation of such artesian aquifers is very critical for sound evaluation and sustainable utilization of groundwater resources in the TMG area. However, study on this aspect of hydrogeology in TMG is limited. Although the flow and storage of TMG aquifer was conceptualised in previous studies, no specific study on artesian aquifer in TMG was made available. There are dozens of flowing artesian boreholes in TMG in which the pressure heads in the boreholes are above ground surface locally. A common approach to estimate hydraulic properties of the aquifers underneath is to make use of free-flowing and recovery tests conducted on a flowing artesian borehole. However, such testing approach was seldom carried out in TMG due to lack of an appropriate device readily available for data collection. A special hydraulic test device was developed for data collection in this context. The test device was successfully tested at a flowing artesian borehole in TMG. The device can not only be used to measure simultaneous flow rate and pressure head at the test borehole, but also be portable and flexible for capturing the data during aquifer tests in similar conditions like artesian holes in Karoo, dolomite or other sites in which pressure head is above ground surface. The straight-line method proposed by Jacob-Lohman is often adopted for data interpretation. However, the approach may not be able to analyse the test data from flowing artesian holes in TMG. The reason is that the TMG aquifers are often bounded by impermeable faults or folds at local or intermediate scale, which implies that some assumptions of infinite aquifer required for the straight-line method cannot be fulfilled. Boundary conditions based on the Jacob-Lohman method need to be considered during the simulation. In addition, the diagnostic plot analysis method using reciprocal rate derivative is adapted to cross-check the results from the straight-line method. The approach could help identify the flow regimes and discern the boundary conditions, of which results further provide useful information to conceptualize the aquifer and facilitate an appropriate analytical method to evaluate the aquifer properties. Two case studies in TMG were selected to evaluate the hydraulic properties of artesian aquifers using the above methods. The transmissivities of the artesian aquifer in TMG range from 0.6 to 46.7 m2/d based on calculations with recovery test data. Storativities range from 10-4 to 10-3 derived from free-flowing test data analysis. For the aquifer at each specific site, the transmissivity value of the artesian aquifer in Rawsonville is estimated to be 7.5–23 m2/d, with storativity value ranging from 2.0×10-4 to 5.5×10-4. The transmissivity value of the artesian aquifer in Oudtshoorn is approximately 37 m2/d, with S value of 1.16×10-3. The simulation results by straight-line and diagnostic plot analysis methods, not only imply the existence of negative skin zone in the vicinity of the test boreholes, but also highlight the fact that the TMG aquifers are often bounded by impermeable faults or folds at local or intermediate scale. With the storativity values of artesian aquifers derived from data interpretation, total groundwater storage capacity of aquifers at two case studies was calculated. The figures will provide valuable information for decision-makers to plan and develop sustainable groundwater utilization of artesian aquifers in local or intermediate scales. With the hydraulic test device readily available for data collection, more aquifer tests can be carried out in other overflow artesian boreholes in TMG. It becomes feasible to determine the hydraulic properties of artesian aquifers for the entire TMG. Thereof quantification of groundwater resources of artesian aquifers in TMG at a mega-scale becomes achievable. This would also contribute towards global research initiative for quantification of groundwater resources at a mega-scale.

Este trabalho buscou avaliar a existência de diferentes padrões hidroquímicos e isotópicos dos aquíferos fraturados do Sistema Aquífero Serra Geral (SASG), relacionando esses padrões com as profundidades das entradas de água. O estudo foi desenvolvido a partir do inventário e cadastramento de poços tubulares existentes na região do município de Carlos Barbosa - RS, do levantamento e interpretação de dados geológicos e hidrogeológicos, além da coleta e análise de amostras de água de poços tubulares que estão em operação e são utilizados pela companhia de abastecimento CORSAN. Para este trabalho foram utilizadas informações hidroquímicas e isotópicas da água de 12 poços tubulares e 3 fontes, além de análise isotópica mensal da água da chuva. A análise dos resultados foi realizada através dos diagramas de Piper, Schoeller e Stiff, além de análise estatística de agrupamento a fim de verificar padrões semelhantes entre os pontos amostrados. Os resultados obtidos permitiram evidenciar que a maioria dos poços apresentam profundidade de até 150 metros com vazões médias que variam de 5 a 20 m³/h, localizados em zonas de média e alta densidade de fraturas, as quais possuem orientação preferencial para noroeste. Quanto à hidroquímica, as águas que circulam por esses aquíferos são do tipo bicarbonatadas cálcicas ou magnesianas, predominando as águas bicarbonatadas mistas e cálcicas, com pequenas variações em relação à concentração dos íons e suas razões iônicas. Essas características hidroquímicas são típicas de águas que circulam por estruturas de rochas vulcânicas ácidas e indicam um baixo tempo de residência, sendo as concentrações variáveis com as profundidades das entradas da água. A avaliação entre a correlação de padrões hidroquímicos com a profundidade das entradas de água permitiu a identificação de dois grupos. O primeiro grupo é caracterizado por poços que apresentam entradas de água localizadas em profundidades inferiores a 30 metros e águas com baixa concentração de íons. No segundo grupo estão inseridos poços cujas entradas de água estão localizadas entre 50 e 112 metros e apresentam águas com uma maior concentração de íons como cálcio, sódio, bicarbonatos e maiores valores de condutividade e sólidos totais dissolvidos. A explicação dessas diferenças está relacionada com a circulação de água e com tempo de interação água-rocha que ocorre de forma diferente dependendo da profundidade das entradas de água. A análise de isótopos das águas de poços, fontes e da água da chuva apresentam semelhanças isotópicas indicando que água subterrânea pode ser caracterizada como originada por infiltração da precipitação nas áreas de recarga. Por fim, a caracterização hidroquímica e isotópica indicam que as águas subterrâneas dessa região apresentam baixo grau de mineralização e baixo tempo de residência, sendo que as exceções foram encontradas em poços que possuíam entradas de água mais profundas. / This study aimed to evaluate the existence of different hydrochemical and isotopic patterns of fractured aquifers of Serra Geral Aquifer System (SGAS), relating these patterns with depths of water intakes. The study was developed from the inventory and registration of wells in the region of Carlos Barbosa - RS, the survey and interpretation of geological and hydrogeological data, and the collection and analysis of samples of water from wells that are in operation and are used by the supply company CORSAN. Hydrochemical and isotopic information from 12 wells and 3 water sources were used for this work, in addition to monthly isotopic analysis of rainwater. The analysis was performed using diagrams as Piper, Schoeller and Stiff, and statistical cluster analysis to verify similar patterns between the sampling points. The results have highlighted that most wells have depths up to 150 meters with average flow rates ranging from 5 to 20 m³/h, located in areas of medium and high density of fractures, which have preferential orientation to the northwest. As for hydrochemistry, water circulating through these aquifers are the calcic or magnesian bicarbonate type , predominantly mixed and calcic bicarbonate waters, with minor variations in the concentration of ions and their ionic reasons. These hydrochemical characteristics are typical of waters that circulate structures and acidic volcanic rocks indicate a low residence time, and the varying concentrations with depths of water inputs. The evaluation of the correlation between patterns hydrochemical with water entry's depth allowed the identification of two groups. The first group is characterized by wells that have water intakes located bellow than 30 meters and waters with low concentration of ions. In the second group are inserted into wells whose water inlets are located between 50 and 112 meters and water present in a higher concentration of ions such as calcium, sodium, bicarbonates and higher values of conductivity and dissolved solids. The explanation of these differences are related to the circulating water and water - time interaction rock occurs differently depending of water entry's depth. Analysis of isotopes of water wells and sources of rainwater present isotopic similarities indicating that groundwater can be characterized as caused by infiltration of rainfall areas recharging. Finally, the hydrochemical and isotopic characterization indicate that the groundwater in this region have low grade mineralization and low residence time, with the exceptions were found in wells that had water intakes deeper.

With the increase in energy consumption, new oil and gas extraction methods in unconventional resources have been explored. Hydraulic fracturing creates fractures to produce and make low permeability reservoirs economically profitable. Hydraulic fractures are also caused unintentionally by the uncontrolled injection in secondary recovery projects or CO2 geological storage. During proppant placement and CO2 injection, the permeability is reduced near the wellbore region due to pore clogging and mineral precipitation. The generated fractures act as high conductivity conduits that increase the capacity of flow in the reservoir. The fracture conductivity is strictly related to its geometry and hydraulic properties. However, these tend to degrade as pressure decreases. The current models do not consider fracture width change in the diffusivity inside the fracture. Additionally, the effect of fracture face skin in fracture closure has not been incorporated. This work focuses on the identification of fracture closure in fractured wells using Pressure Transient data. A semi-analytical model was developed for including the effects of fracture closure, fracture face skin, and complex fracture geometries. The matrix and fracture systems are coupled by pressure continuity at the interface. Fracture face skin is added, assuming a thin layer surrounding the fracture. The model is solved in Laplace space using a semi-analytical approach. The results are validated using a commercial simulator (CMG) and previous models. The pressure response in fractured wells with stress-sensitive fractures is analyzed at early, middle, and late times. In each time period, we identify pressure signals to detect fracture closure by incorporating effective fracture compressibility and fracture conductivity reduction. By incorporating the effective fracture compressibility, the model can reproduce a high storage capacity fracture signal. This signal occurs at early times and can help in post-fracture analysis. The fracture face skin creates an additional pressure drop in the fracture system, triggering conductivity reduction earlier than an undamaged fracture. We proposed a semi-log approach to identify fracture closure for slow rates of fracture closure and the pseudo-radial simplification to generate late time response curves instead of the complete solution for the model.

This essay explores the concept of hybridity and its relation to cultural identity in Mohsin Hamid's The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007). Changez' identity is analysed by using postcolonial theory and its notion of hybrid identities. By analysing Changez' cultural identity, I came to the conclusion that his hybridity is not fixed, but rather fluid and changing. At the beginning of the novel, Changez' hybrid identity is fractioned and unstable, leading him to become ashamed and uncomfortable with who he is and his Pakistani culture. At the end of the novel he realises that his experiences in America will always be part of who he is - part of his identity - and his hybridity becomes harmonious and stable, in turn allowing him to use Western culture against itself; a key part of hybridity in postcolonial theory.

Stockholm archipelago is a combination of coastal and young glaciated conditions on hard rock geology with almost no primary porosity and very limited secondary porosity. Therefore the aquifer is both of limited capacity and exposed to salinity problem. In this context importance of fractures and soil cover is magnified. Lineaments are representatives of fractures in remote sensing. Fracture mapping in study area proves close correspondence between orientation of fractures and nearly located lineaments. Especially in this type of terrain, lineaments normally occur together with many other interesting hydrogeological features such as topographic attributes, soil, and vegetation; however, still each of these factors has its own effect on the groundwater situation. Through employment of geostatistical analysis and a modified variant of the RV (Risk Variable) method, called the PV (Probability Value) method, different attributes are rated by importance. The results show, soil cover is the most influencing factor then rock type and distance from lineaments; other factors are classified after them. It is discovered that the center of lineaments may not be the most suitable site to extract water because of being clogged by fills. This is particularly the case for shear fractures in which clay can be internally formed due to friction. Based on the statistical results a model is made in GIS environment in order to create hydrogeological maps. Such maps, after validation, can be used for any other area with similar properties even with missing or very limited data from boreholes. These maps definitively are only probability maps projecting areas with higher and lower prospect of aquifer potential and cannot guarantee high capacity in every borehole drilled in designated areas due to high heterogeneity of fractured rock system. Analysis of chemical data from wells proves a correlation between fracture orientations and topography with salinization and groundwater flow. Groundwater flow in the surroundings seems to be essential for feeding the aquifer as most of the wells with increased salt content have also low capacities.

[pt] Todos os reservatórios de petróleo apresentam algum grau de fraturamento. Muitas vezes, a presença de fraturas afeta de forma significativa o fluxo dos fluidos nele contidos, seja por incrementarem a permeabilidade do meio, criando caminhos preferenciais de escoamento, seja por imporem algum tipo de barreira ao fluxo. Quando submetidos à injeção de água, reservatórios naturalmente fraturados podem apresentar graves problemas de produção prematura de água e baixíssimas eficiências de varrido. Os estudos realizados neste trabalho procuraram contribuir para o melhor entendimento dos processos de recuperação envolvidos na produção de reservatórios fraturados, bem como o impacto de cada um dos principais parâmetros que condicionam o fluxo no meio poroso fraturado. Foi realizada, ainda, uma análise de possíveis estratégias de drenagem para esse tipo de reservatório. Por fim, foram realizadas simulações para estudar possíveis ganhos da injeção de emulsão de óleo em água, como método de recuperação, em comparação com a injeção de água. / [en] All oil reservoirs have some degree of fracturing. Often, the presence of fractures affects significantly the flow of the fluids contained in the reservoir, increasing the permeability and creating preferential flow paths or by imposing some barrier to the flow. When subjected to waterflooding, naturally fractured reservoirs may have serious problems like early production of water or very low swept efficiencies. The analyses conducted in this study contemplated the understanding of recovery processes involved in the production of fractured reservoirs and the impact of each of the main parameters that influence the flow in fractured porous media. Also, an analysis of possible draining strategies for this type of reservoir was performed. Finally, simulations were performed to study the possible gains of emulsion injection, as a recovery method, compared with water injection.

The Karoo has been receiving considerable attention since the early 1970’s when uranium mining was at its peak, with numerous research studies being instigated to look at all aspects of uranium mining. It has recently been observed that there seems to be resurgence in uranium exploration in and around the town of Beaufort West. A study on the transport mechanisms of uranium and thorium in fractured-rock aquifers, initiated in the hope of understanding the actual processes controlling radionuclide mobilisation, is reported here. Hydrochemical investigations of the various boreholes were sampled for water quality in June, 2009. The hydrochemical description is typical of shallow fresh groundwater, changing composition to a more sulphate hydrochemical facies along the flow path. While the geochemistry of groundwater in the study area seems to have minimal effects on uranium concentrations, the low levels of uranium in boreholes sampled suggest the importance of hydrological and lithological variability on the measured concentrations. Nevertheless, the uranium concentration is within the recommended levels as specified in the US-EPA, WHO and SA water quality guidelines and thus poses no immediate threat to the general public. Analysis of pumping and tracer tests, reveals that the fractured-rock aquifer can be highly transmissive and that transport can take place via multiple flow paths having different hydraulic properties. Tracer diffusing into stagnant water zones within fracture asperities and the rock matrix are seen as an important retardation mechanism, that has implications for remediation should the aquifer be contaminated by radionuclides. In terms of conceptualising flow at a local scale, aperture sizes ranging from (563-828ìm) along with high flow velocities (1.90E-03m/s), points to the importance of bedding-plane fractures as conduits of groundwater flow. The groundwater flow has been influenced by dolerite dykes creating compartments isolated from each other, suggesting a highly complex aquifer system. Based on the conceptual model, it is shown that these structures can create unique, site specific flow conditions. The integration of all available data into the conceptual model provides an effective research tool that can be built upon as a basis for further research. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Geology / unrestricted

Por años, la humanidad ha intentado aproximarse a las complejidades de la naturaleza, formulando principios y herramientas numérica para la modelación del escurrimiento subterráneo, el aprovechamiento de data medida en campo (piezómetros, registros de sondeos diamantinos y aforos) y análisis estadístico, permite proyectar y/o proponer modelos de flujo (circulación) dentro de unidades geológicas, como es el caudal de filtraciones una variable dependiente, y su importancia de ser estimado y drenado adecuadamente conllevaría a establecer indicadores de monitoreo y control del caudal dentro de masas geológicas. La información que fue recopilada e interpretada, está en función a la data obtenida de campo, los cuales permitieron proponer un modelo conceptual de flujo que considerase las características del o los macizos rocosos presentes en el Derrumbe 5, estableciéndose una primera estimación del caudal de filtraciones dentro de estas masas geológicas. El modelo conceptual de flujo y geológico inferido, fue implementado usando el código FEFLOW 7.1, permitiendo establecer una solución de aproximación numérica bajo la técnica de elementos finitos, asignándose condiciones iniciales y valores de permeabilidad para cada masa geológica de constitución compleja, la comparación de los datos observados en campo versus los resultados del modelo numérico, permitió establecer la curva de calibración, obteniéndose resultados RMS por debajo del 5%, Anderson (1986), valor aceptable en técnicas de modelación, los valores que fueron estimados para el caudal de filtración en las galerías se estimaron en el orden 2.1 l/s a 5.0 l/s basada en la interpretación de los datos medidos en campo (aforos) versus los estimados numéricamente. / For years, the human being has tried to approximate the complexities of nature, the principles and the numerical tools for the mode of superficial and subterranean clarification, the use of the data measured in the field (piezometers, records of diamond drilling and gauging) and its statistical treatment, allows to infer and / or predict flow models (circulation) within the geological masses, this flow of filtrations being a dependent variable, and its importance to be estimated and drained adequately, as well as to the monitoring indicators and control of the flow within geological masses. The information that was collected and interpreted, is based on the data obtained from the field, which allowed us to propose a conceptual flow model that considered the characteristics of the rock mass (s) present in Collapse 5, and establishing a first estimate of the flow of leaks within these geological masses. The conceptual model of inferred flow and geology was implemented using the FEFLOW 7.1 code, allowing to establish a numerical approximation solution under the finite element technique, assigning initial conditions and permeability values for each geological mass of complex constitution, comparing the data observed in the field versus the results of the numerical model, allowed to establish the calibration curve, obtaining RMS results below 5%, acceptable value in modeling techniques, the values that were estimated for the flow of filtration in the galleries were estimated in the order 2.1 l / s at 5.0 l / s based on the interpretation of the data measured in the field (aforos) versus the numerically estimated ones. / Tesis

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