FundaÃÃo de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Cearà / CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / A demanda das populaÃÃes por mais Ãgua tem forÃado o desenvolvimento de tÃcnicas para melhorar o aproveitamento de todas as formas de recursos hÃdricos. Em algumas partes dos Estados Unidos da AmÃrica, o fraturamento hidrÃulico tem sido utilizado para estimular poÃos perfurados no embasamento cristalino a aumentarem suas vazÃes. Na regiÃo Nordeste do Brasil, os poÃos perfurados neste tipo de formaÃÃo geolÃgica frequentemente exibem baixas vazÃes, o que os leva à posterior desativaÃÃo ou ao simples abandono. O objetivo principal desta pesquisa à estudar, analisar e quantificar os efeitos que o fraturamento hidrÃulico imprime sobre a transmissividade, a conectividade e as vazÃes de um aqÃÃfero fissural. Para tanto se desenvolveu um modelo de propagaÃÃo de fraturas em formaÃÃes rasas e de matriz impermeÃvel. AlÃm disso, fez-se uso de modelos de hidrÃulica de poÃos para a determinaÃÃo dos parÃmetros hidrodinÃmicos do aqÃÃfero. Para testar a metodologia, dados coletados em dois poÃos de bombeamento perfurados na Fazenda de Horticultura da University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, foram utilizados. Estes dados incluem testes de bombeamento prÃ-fraturamento e pÃs-fraturamento, ensaio geofÃsicos, alÃm dos registros da operaÃÃo de fraturamento. Uma anÃlise conjunta dos resultados dos testes de bombeamento e do modelo de propagaÃÃo de fratura permitiu concluir que, o fraturamento hidrÃulico aumentou a transmissividade das fraturas em 46 vezes em um poÃo e 285 vezes em outro. A conectividade do sistema de fraturas experimentou acrÃscimos entre 11 e 20 vezes. O dado prÃtico foi que um poÃo passou a fornecer vazÃes 10 vezes maiores e no outro este aumento foi de 18 vezes. Estes melhoramentos foram possÃveis porque o fraturamento hidrÃulico alargou a abertura das fraturas e fez seu raio propagar por dezenas de metros. A distÃncia que a fratura propagou a partir do poÃo juntamente com o aumento na interconexÃo das fraturas conectou o poÃo a regiÃes mais favorÃveis à recarga.

Pour effectuer des simulations d'écoulement diphasique dans les réservoirs fracturés, l'usage des modèles DFM entraîne des temps de calculs exorbitants. L'une des solutions envisageables est le recours aux modèles double milieu. Ces modèles nécessitent la détermination des dimensions du bloc équivalent et la mise à l'échelle des paramètres d'écoulement monophasique et diphasique. Concernant les paramètres d'écoulement monophasique, des méthodes de mise à l'échelle existantes ont déjà fait leur preuve. En contrepartie la mise à l'échelle des paramètres d'écoulement diphasique reste un sujet ouvert nécessitant l'identification de la nature des forces (capillaires, gravitaires ou visqueuses) contrôlant l'écoulement dans le réservoir. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, les formulations mathématiques et les modèles numériques liées à la simulation de type DFM et double milieu ont été explorés. Une étude bibliographique portant sur les méthodes existantes de mise à l'échelle a été développée. Une nouvelle méthode de détermination des dimensions du bloc équivalent (méthode OBS) a été mise en place. Une analyse dimensionnelle servant à identifier la nature des échanges matrice-fractures (capillaire ou visqueuses) lors d'un écoulement diphasique eau-huile, sans gravité, a été mise en place. Le nombre capillaire dérivé a été testé. Enfin, une méthodologie de mise l'échelle des paramètres équivalents double milieu a été mise en place. Cette méthodologie traite le cas d'un écoulement diphasique dans les réservoirs fracturés ayant un milieu matriciel hétérogène dans un contexte d'échanges matrice-fractures dominés par les effets visqueux. / In order to carry-out two phase flow simulations within naturally fractured reservoirs, using DFM models results in huge computational costs. Using dual medium models is one of the available alternative solutions. These models require identifying the equivalent bloc dimensions and upscaling single phase and two phase flow parameters. Available upcaling methods related to single phase parameters reached maturity. Otherwise, upscaling two phase flow parameters is still an open research topic requiring identifying the type of the forces controlling flow in the fractured reservoir (gravity, capillary forces, and viscous forces). During this PhD work, mathematical and numerical models related to DFM and dual medium simulations were explored. A study of the state of the art related to upscaling methods was done. A new and original method allowing determining the dual medium equivalent bloc dimensions (OBS method) was settled down. A dimensional analysis aiming at identifying the type of the forces controlling matrix-fracture exchanges (capillarity, viscous forces) in a water-oil two phase flow within naturally fractured reservoirs without gravity was settled down. The derived capillary number was tested. Finally, an equivalent two phase flow parameters upscaling workflow was also settled down. This workflow treats the particular case of a two phase flow in naturally fractured reservoirs with an heterogeneous matrix medium in a context of matrix-fracture exchanges ruled by viscous forces.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Research findings in current study provide a new insight into the fractured rock aquifers in the TMG area. Some of the results will have wide implications on the groundwater management and forms a solid basis the further study of the TMG aquifers.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Research findings in current study provide a new insight into the fractured rock aquifers in the TMG area. Some of the results will have wide implications on the groundwater management and forms a solid basis the further study of the TMG aquifers.

Les réservoirs non-conventionnels présentent un milieu fracturé à multi-échelles, y compris des fractures stimulées et des fractures naturelles, augmentant l'hétérogénéité et la complexité de la simulation de réservoir. Ce travail propose un modèle unique et simple tout en tenant compte des paramètres clés d'un réservoir, tels que l'orientation des fractures, l'anisotropie et la faible perméabilité du réservoir. L'échange matrice-fracture n'est pas correctement modélisé en utilisation les modèles Discrete Fracture Model (DFM) standards en raison de la très faible perméabilité. Dans ce travail nous proposons l'extension de la méthode MINC (Multiple interagissant Continua) aux modèles DFM afin d'améliorer l'échange matrice-fracture. Notre DFM basé sur la méthode MINC, est un modèle triple porosité où les fractures de très grandes conductivités sont explicitement discrétisées et le reste est homogénéisé. Autrement aux modèles standards et afin d'améliorer l'échange de flux entre la matrice et la fracture, une maille matrice est subdivisé selon une fonction de proximité en tenant compte de la distribution des fractures. Notamment, notre approche est particulièrement utile pour les simulations multiphasique avec un changement de phase dans l'échange matrice/fracture, qui ne peut pas être simulé avec une approche standard. Enfin, nous avons appliqué notre approche pour un cas DFN synthétique dans un réservoir de gaz à condensat et un réservoir tight-oil. Un bon accord a été observé en comparant nos résultats à des solutions de référence obtenues avec des maillages très fins. / Unconventional low permeability reservoirs present a multi-scale fractured media, including stimulated fractures and natural fractures of various sizes, increasing the heterogeneity and the complexity of the reservoir simulation. This work proposes a methodology to address this challenge, taking into account reservoir key parameters such as fractures locations, orientation, anisotropy and low permeability matrix in a unique model as simple as possible. Using standard Discrete Fracture Models (DFMs), the matrix-fracture interaction is not properly handled due to the large grid cells and very low matrix permeability. In this work, we extended the MINC (Multiple INteracting Continua) method to the DFM in order to improve the matrix-fracture flow exchange. Our DFM based on a MINC proximity function is computed by taking into account all discrete fractures, within a triple-porosity model where the propped fractures are explicitly discretized and other fractures are homogenized. In order to improve the flow exchange between the matrix and fracture media, the matrix grid cell is subdivided according to the MINC proximity function based on the distance to all discrete fractures, by using randomly sampled points. Our approach is particularly useful for multi-phase flow simulations in matrix-fracture interaction with phase change, which cannot be handled by a standard approach. Finally, we applied our technique to synthetic DFM case in a retrograde gas and a tight-oil reservoirs. A good agreement is observed by comparing our results to a reference solution where very fine grid cells were used.

La plupart des méthodes pour la modélisation des réservoirs fracturés reposent sur le modèle de Warren et Root (1963). Mais ce modèle reste limité par : l'hypothèse d'un volume élémentaire représentatif, l'évaluation des transferts matrice-fractures, l’idéalisation du système fracturé, l'emploi de conditions aux limites locales. La méthode développée répond à ces quatre points. Un réseau de fractures et une grille de matrice sont discrétisés conjointement, puis un changement d'échelle est réalisé. Un ensemble de nœuds représentatifs est sélectionné, et un système simplifié équivalent est construit par décimation des autres nœuds en assurant la conservation des pressions et des débits sans imposer de conditions aux limites. Enfin le nombre de connexions est réduit et les transmissibilités restantes sont calculées par une procédure d'optimisation. Ces systèmes simplifiés ont été résolus plus rapidement lors de simulations d’écoulement tout en reproduisant le comportement du modèle fin / Most methods for modeling fractured reservoirs rely on the model of Warren and Root (1963). But this model is limited by: the assumption of a representative elementary volume, the evaluation of matrix-fracture transfers, the idealization of the fractured system, the use of local boundary conditions. The developed method overcomes these four points. A fracture network and a matrix grid are jointly discretized, then an upscaling is carried out. A set of representative nodes is selected, and an equivalent simplified system is built by decimating the other nodes while ensuring the preservation of pressure and flow rate and without imposing any boundary conditions. Finally the number of connexions is reduced and the remaining transmissibilities are evaluated by an optimization procedure. These simplified systems have been solved more quickly by the flow simulator while reproducing the fine model behavior

The geological repository for final storage of spent nuclear fuel, envisioned by the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Management Company (SKB), relies on several barriers: copper canisters deposited in holes in the floor of underground tunnels in deep bedrock, embedded in a buffer of compacted bentonite. The initially unsaturated buffer would take up water from the surrounding rock mass and swell to seal any potential gap. This initial two-phase (gas and liquid) regime with two components (air and water) may impact the final density, swelling pressure and biogeochemical conditions in the buffer. A main objective of this work is to identify factors and mechanisms that govern deposition hole inflow and bentonite wetting under the prevailing two-phase flow conditions in sparsely fractured bedrock. For this purpose, we use the numerical code TOUGH2 to perform two-phase flow simulations, conditioned by a companion field experiment (the Bentonite Rock Interaction Experiment or BRIE) performed in a 417 m deep tunnel of the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory in southeastern Sweden. The models predict a significant de-saturation of the rock wall, which was confirmed by field data. To predict the early buffer wetting rates and patterns, the position of local flowing fractures and estimates of local rock matrix permeability appear more important than the total open hole groundwater inflow. A global sensitivity analysis showed that the buffer wetting time and the persistence of unsaturated conditions over extended periods of time in the rock depend primarily on the local fracture positions, rock matrix permeability, ventilation conditions in the tunnel and pressure far in the rock. Dismantling photographs from BRIE were used to reconstruct a fine-scale snapshot of saturation at the bentonite/rock interface, showing tremendous spatial variability. The high level of heterogeneity in the rock generates complex two-phase flow phenomena (air trapping, dissolution), which need to be accounted for in buffer design and rock suitability criteria. In particular, results suggest that uncertainties regarding two-phase flow behavior are relatively high close to residual air saturation, which may also have important implications for other applications involving two-phase flows, such as geological storage of carbon dioxide. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

[pt] A presença de fraturas naturais em reservatórios de petróleo pode gerar grandes impactos no deslocamento de fluidos em seu interior. Os maiores problemas estão na irregularidade da área varrida pelo fluido injetado, por exemplo, a água, e a antecipação dos breakthroughs, ou seja, a chegada precoce da água aos poços produtores. De modo a analisar o efeito promovido pela presença de fraturas no meio, foram simulados os dois modelos de simulação de fluxo em reservatórios fraturados: o modelo de dupla-porosidade (DP) e o modelo de dupla-porosidade e dupla-permeabilidade (DPDK), bem como outros dois modelos derivados do modelo DP, o modelo de Subdomínios (SD) e o modelo MINC (Multiple Interacting Continua). Também foram realizadas análises paramétricas para compreender o impacto de propriedades, como as permeabilidades tanto da matriz quanto da fratura e o espaçamento das fraturas, no comportamento do fluxo em reservatórios fraturados. A presença de corredores de fraturas (fracture swarms) foi, igualmente, avaliada, assim como seu efeito associado à presença de camadas de altíssima permeabilidade (super-K). Por fim, foi simulado um modelo mais complexo, denominado GTEP, o qual foi construído a partir de uma seção aplicada à simulação de um reservatório carbonático gigante do Oriente Médio, com o intuito de exemplificar a irregularidade da área varrida em reservatórios naturalmente fraturados. / [en] The presence of natural fractures in oil reservoirs can generate major impacts on the fluid displacement inside them. The greatest problems are irregularity in the area swept by the injected fluid, e.g. water, and breakthroughs anticipation, or early arrival of water to the producing wells. In order to analyze the effect of the presence of fractures in the medium, two flow models of fractured reservoirs were constructed: the dual-porosity model (DP) and the dual-porosity and dual permeability model (DPDK), as well as two other models derived from the DP model, Subdomains model (SD) and MINC model (Multiple Interacting Continua). Parametric analyzes were also conducted to comprehend the impact of properties, such as the matrix permeability, the fracture permeability and the fracture spacing, on the flow behavior in fractured reservoirs. The presence of fracture corridors (fracture swarms) was also evaluated in three models, as well as its effect associated with the presence of layers of high permeability, denoted super-K. Finally, a more complex model, called GTEP Field, was simulated, which was constructed from a section applied to the simulation of a giant carbonate reservoir in the Middle East, in order to illustrate the irregularity of the swept area in natural fractured reservoirs.

This dissertation collates all available data from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry’s (DWAF’s) National Groundwater Database (NGDB), DWAF’s Groundwater Resource Information Project (GRIP) and tests conducted during the progress of this project in order to evaluate Basement aquifers. The project was commenced at the request of the Water Research Commission (WRC), situated in Pretoria, South Africa. The study area (Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba Water Management Areas, WMA1 and WMA2 respectively) is underlain by fractured, crystalline Basement terrain. The influences of structures (i.e. joints, faults and shear zones) and the neotectonic stress conditions were also studied to address the influence on groundwater flow and occurrence. The aim of the project was to address the determination of the aquifer parameters (essentially transmissivity and sustainable yield) in Basement terrane. Pumping test data was used and analysed via the Flow Characteristic Programme (Institute for Groundwater Studies, University of Free State). The methods of Logan (1964), Theis (1935), Cooper-Jacob (1946) and Birsoy-Summers (1980) were applied for comparative purposes. Statistically, all four methods supplied results within the same order of magnitude, with Theis and Cooper-Jacob correlating extremely well. Results from the Logan and Birsoy-Summers methods correlated very well too, but the T-values calculated via Logan’s method were almost double those obtained from the step-drawdown data analysed via the Birsoy-Summers method. The combined results adhered to a developed model-setting-scenario approach where each borehole can be evaluated based on three parameters. Firstly, the model refers to the potential water-bearing and/or water-barring features. In the study area, it was found that water predominates in the Hout River Shear Zone, and that the neotectonic stress fields have little influence on determining the orientation of favourable water-bearing structures. Geological contacts often resulted in higher yielding boreholes than geological structures. Secondly, the setting refers to the climatic and tectonic setting of the site. This determines the recharge and the orientation of structures. Based on this, supposedly closed structures (due to prevailing neotectonic stress fields) often supplied higher yielding boreholes than the supposedly open structures. Rainfall and climate however had little influence on the results. Finally, the scenario ranks a borehole in terms of high, intermediate or low transmissivity and subsequently potential yield. High T-values typically exceeded 100 m2/d whereas low T-values were generally below 5 m2/d. Significantly low yielding boreholes therefore formed part of the Low T Scenario, and high yielding boreholes of the High T Scenario. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Geology / unrestricted

Numerical analysis of multi-field problems in porous and fractured media is an important subject for various geotechnical engineering tasks such as the management of geo-resources (e.g. engineering of geothermal, oil and gas reservoirs) as well as waste management. For practical usage, e.g. for geothermal, simulation tools are required which take into account both coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) processes and the uncertainty of geological data, i.e. the model parametrization. For modeling fractured rocks, equivalent porous medium or multiple continuum model approaches are often only the way currently due to difficulty to handle geomechanical discontinuities. However, they are not applicable for prediction of flow and transport in subsurface systems where a few fractures dominates the system behavior. Thus modeling coupled problems in discretely fractured porous media is desirable for more precise analysis. The subject of this work is developing a framework of the finite element method (FEM) for modeling coupled THM problems in discretely fractured and non-fractured porous media including thermal water flow, advective-diffusive heat transport, and thermoporoelasticity. Pre-existing fractures are considered. Systems of discretely fractured porous media can be considered as a problem of interacted multiple domains, i.e. porous medium domain and discrete fracture domain, for hydraulic and transport processes, and a discontinuous problem for mechanical processes. The FEM is required to take into account both kinds of the problems. In addition, this work includes developing a methodology for the data uncertainty using the FEM model and investigating the uncertainty impacts on evaluating coupled THM processes. All the necessary code developments in this work has been carried out with a scientific open source project OpenGeoSys (OGS). In this work, fluid flow and heat transport problems in interactive multiple domains are solved assuming continuity of filed variables (pressure and temperature) over the two domains. The assumption is reasonable if there are no infill materials in fractures. The method has been successfully applied for several numerical examples, e.g. modeling three-dimensional coupled flow and heat transport processes in discretely fractured porous media at the Gross Schoenebck geothermal site (Germany), and three-dimensional coupled THM processes in porous media at the Urach Spa geothermal site (Germany). To solve the mechanically discontinuous problems, lower-dimensional interface elements (LIEs) with local enrichments have been developed for coupled problems in a domain including pre-existing fractures. The method permits the possibility of using existing flow simulators and having an identical mesh for both processes. It enables us to formulate the coupled problems in monolithic scheme for robust computation. Moreover, it gives an advantage in practice that one can use existing standard FEM codes for groundwater flow and easily make a coupling computation between mechanical and hydraulic processes. Example of a 2D fluid injection problem into a single fracture demonstrated that the proposed method can produce results in strong agreement with semi-analytical solutions. An uncertainty analysis of THM coupled processes has been studied for a typical geothermal reservoir in crystalline rock based on the Monte-Carlo method. Fracture and matrix are treated conceptually as an equivalent porous medium, and the model is applied to available data from the Urach Spa and Falkenberg sites (Germany). Reservoir parameters are considered as spatially random variables and their realizations are generated using conditional Gaussian simulation. Two reservoir modes (undisturbed and stimulated) are considered to construct a stochastic model for permeability distribution. We found that the most significant factors in the analysis are permeability and heat capacity. The study demonstrates the importance of taking parameter uncertainties into account for geothermal reservoir evaluation in order to assess the viability of numerical modeling.