Esta tese traz contribuições para a formulação do problema de atendimento de necessidades por energia, relacionadas à eletricidade e combustíveis no caso brasileiro. A argumentação pela expansão crescente da oferta de energia é expressão corrente no senso comum, nas agências de notícias, nos discursos oficiais e nos vários planos apresentados à sociedade, e se apóia nas ideologias do progresso e do desenvolvimento econômico. A busca por legitimação desse processo expansivo e acelerado passa por conceitos como soberania nacional, segurança energética e pela inserção do país como protagonista econômico no cenário Latino Americano. Os empreendimentos de infraestrutura na área de energia são intensivos na utilização dos recursos naturais, provocam deslocamentos populacionais importantes e deixam consequências e registro volumoso e inequívoco de passivos sociais e ambientais na historiografia e na sociologia relacionadas à energia. Neste trabalho faz-se um retrospecto das relações entre empresas privadas, estatais e estruturas de governo nos processos de consolidação da geração, produção e distribuição de eletricidade, desde a transição do capitalismo concorrencial ao capitalismo oligopolista-financeiro que encontra, na expansão dos serviços de utilidade pública brasileiros, oportunidade econômica, desde o início do séc. XX. O retrospecto revela similaridades, ao longo do período analisado, tanto na identificação da centralização nas tomadas de decisão e formulação dos problemas relacionados à energia, quanto na relação internacional dos fluxos de capital e de produtos primários de exportação, presença das grandes empresas estrangeiras constituídas mundialmente em rede e na caracterização do repertório de vantagens comparativas que o Brasil apresenta. Há novidades contemporâneas: outra forma de legitimação aparece, a da matriz energética mais limpa, baseada na hidroeletricidade como conversão de energia limpa e renovável. As descobertas recentes de gigantescos volumes de hidrocarbonetos na camada do Pré-sal, sua provável utilização e o acúmulo dos estudos das consequências ambientais e sociais da consolidação da indústria da hidroeletricidade brasileira, no entanto, vão de encontro a essa argumentação. Utilizamos o termo fetichismo da oferta expansiva de energia, pois os processos de legitimação do discurso da necessidade energética supera o sentido ontológico e procura amparo nas estruturas sociais, tornando sua oferta crescente como algo naturalizado. Produz-se um quadro de referência sobre os problemas identificados nos processos de licenciamento ambiental em três projetos hidrelétricos (Santo Antonio, Jirau, e Belo Monte) e a partir deles são identificadas outras necessidades: a de mudanças institucionais, de leis ambientais e de proteção dos direitos de populações tradicionais e indígenas, atribuições do Ministério Público. Mudanças que aparecem para tornar célere os processos de licenciamento ambiental, particularmente os relacionados com o avanço da fronteira energética na Amazônia. As críticas e as reações ao processo expansivo, algumas oficialmente expostas nos processos de licenciamento ambiental e outras advindas dos movimentos e organizações de ameaçados, atingidos e organizações ambientalistas, são interpretadas como obstáculos. Surgem as subversões porque a formulação do problema de equacionamento da oferta é intrinsecamente expansivo e avesso a soluções fora do repertório e enredo de que o quadro futuro é expansão do quadro presente. A garantia de suprimento, sempre ameaçada pelas chamadas crises de fornecimento se torna objeto central, ora nega, ora estimula a termoeletricidade. Ora aceita, ora rejeita a moldura da legislação ambiental. O problema deixa de ser energético para ser um problema de acumulação e permanece ambiental no sentido das consequências que se ampliam. Em ambos os casos, descritos os fluxos de financiamento e comércio internacional e as mudanças institucionais em curso, se caracteriza como problema político e não necessariamente brasileiro. / This thesis reflects on the formulation of the problem of responding to the needs for energy, related to electricity and fuels in the Brazilian case. The argument for the increasing expansion of the energy supply is current expression in the common sense, in the news agencies, in the official discourse, and in the various plans presented to the society, and it rests on ideologies of progress and economic development. The search for legitimacy of this fast process of expansion encompasses concepts such as national sovereignty, energy security, as well as the increasing importance of the country as a leading economic player in the Latin America scenario. The infrastructure projects in the energy area are intensive in the use of natural resources, causing major population displacements and produce consequences and voluminous and unequivocal records of social and environmental liabilities to the historiography and sociology related to energy. This thesis presents a retrospect of the relationship between private, state and government structures in the consolidation processes of generation, production and distribution of electricity, starting on the transition from the concorrential capitalism to the financial-oligopolistic capitalism, which finds economic opportunities in the expansion of utilities in Brazil, since the beginning of the century XX. The retrospect reveals similarity to the current situation both in the identification of centralization in decision making and formulation of problems related to energy, as well as in the international relations of the flows of capital and the export of primary products, the presence of large foreign companies established worldwide in network and the characterization of the repertoire of comparative advantages that Brazil presents. There are contemporary news: another form of legitimacy appears; the cleaner sources of energy portfolio, based on the hydroelectricity as a clean and renewable form of energy conversion. The recent discoveries of huge volumes of hydrocarbons in the pre-salt layer, their likely use and the growing number of studies on environmental and social consequences of the consolidation of Brazilian hydroelectricity industry, however, go against this argument. We use the term fetishism of the expansive energy supply, because the processes of legitimacy of the discourse of energy demand exceeds the ontological sense and seeks refuge in social structures, making its permanently growing supply as something given. It produces a reference framework about the obstacle identified in the environmental licensing processes in three hydroelectric projects (Santo Antonio, Jirau and Belo Monte) and then identifies other needs: institutional changes in environmental laws and the protection of rights of traditional and indigenous populations - the roles of the Public Ministry. They appear in order to make the environmental licensing processes faster, particularly those related to the advancement of energy frontier in the Amazon. The criticisms and reactions to the expansion process, some of them officially exposed in the process of environmental licensing, and others arising from social movements and associations of the threatened, affected people and from environmental organizations, are interpreted as obstacles. The subversions arise because the formulation of the response to the energy supply is intrinsically expansive and it is contrary to solutions outside of the repertoire and plot that states the future scenario is an expansion of present scenario. The security of supply, always threatened by the so-called \"supply crises\" becomes the central object, and it sometimes denies and sometimes stimulates the thermal electricity. It sometimes accepts and sometimes rejects the framework of the environmental legislation. The problem is no longer a problem of energy, becomes a problem of accumulation, and it remains an environmental problem in the sense of the growing consequences. In both cases, described the flow of international trade and finance and the ongoing institutional changes, the problem becomes political and not necessarily Brazilian.

Climate change denial is a widely spread phenomenon in the United States that has for decades shaped the country's response to the numerous environmental challenges it has been facing. This thesis deals with the role of the American fossil fuels lobby in the analyzed matter, as it constituted the main force behind its rise. The main goal of the thesis is to prove that the success of the climate change denial orchestrated by the fossil fuels industry was enabled by its ties to the political establishment. Moreover, it argues that this was done by using professionally drafted strategies, which turned a once-widely-accepted fact - backed by a scientific consensus - into a matter of debate, opinion, politics, ideology, and identity. In order to do that, the thesis firstly covers the historical development of the climate debate in the United Sates. It looks at the major milestones in the country's approach in dealing with the problem of the environment as well as the emergence of the climate change denial campaign itself. Secondly, it analyzes the various connections between U.S. politics, special interests, and climate science from the 1970s until the end of the George W. Bush Administration. Next, it introduces the specific tactics and methods employed by the climate change denial campaign. Moreover,...

Idag är marinindustrin helt beroende av fossila bränslen. I detta arbete har en kvalitativ litteraturstudie genomförts i syfte att presentera ett perspektiv på vad som skulle kunna vara realistiskt möjligt idag när det gäller användning av alternativa bränslen för att begränsa växthusgasutsläppen från sjöfartsindustrin. Det finns många olika bränslen som kan användas i antingen en förbränningsmotor eller i bränsleceller. Vätgas har den ultimata lösningen när det gäller hållbarhet på grund av den tekniska enkelheten i utvinningen och förutsägbara utsläpp. På grund av bristen på tekniska lösningar som säkerställer driftstabilitet och tillgång är vätgas inte möjligt att införa i stor industriell skala för närvarande. Metanol verkar ha en mer lovande framtid på kort sikt och sekundärt biobränslen, inklusive förnybar metanol, på lång sikt. Metanol har redan en befintlig infrastruktur och används redan som framdrivningsmedel i vissa fartyg. Just nu kommer nästan all metanol från fossila bränslen. Även om tillgången på metanol är fossil, bidrar den ändå till mindre utsläpp i en livscykel än av konventionellt marint bränsle gör. För det andra kan den produceras via en förnybar process som involverar biomassa bland annat. Andra biobränslen som biodiesel har liknande egenskaper som konventionell marin diesel och är förnybar, koldioxidneutral och kan produceras från en rad olika råvaror. Den geografiska spridningen av råvaror kan dock vara en utmaning för den lokala tillgången, men det betyder inte automatiskt att det inte kan distribueras över hela världen. Ett annat problem som är förknippat med biobränslen är tillgången på biomassa. Tillgången till biomassa är begränsad på grund av efterfrågan på mat, därför kommer produktion av icke-ätbara grödor som odlas för det enda syftet att producera biobränsle att behövas för att överkomma en eventuell tillgångsproblematik i framtiden. Mängden bränsle som marinindustrin efterfrågar kan sannolikt inte produceras från ett enda råmaterial i framtiden, så det är troligt att en blandning av olika biobränslen som produceras från olika råvaror kan vara en realistisk möjlighet i framtiden. / Today the marine industry is fully dependent on fossil fuels. In this paper a qualitative literature study has been performed to present a perspective of what could be realistically possible today in terms of usage of alternative fuels to limit the GHG-emissions caused by the marine shipping industry. There are a lot of different fuels than can be applied in either an internal combustion engine or in fuel cells. Hydrogen possesses the ultimate solution in terms of sustainability because of the technical simplicity of extraction and predictable emissions. However, due to the lack of technical solutions that will ensure operational stability and supply, hydrogen is not feasible on a large industrial scale at this time. Methanol seems to have a more promising future in short term and secondly biofuels, including renewable methanol, in the long term. Methanol already has an existing infrastructure and is already being used in ships. However, as of right now almost all methanol is derived from fossil fuels. Even though the supply of methanol is fossil, it still contributes to less emissions than of conventional marine fuel. Secondly it can be produced with a renewable process involving biomass. Other biofuels like biodiesel possess similar properties that of conventional marine diesel and is renewable, carbon neutral and can be produced from a range of different feedstocks. However, the geographic diffusion of feedstocks can be a challenge to local supply, but that does not automatically mean that it can’t be distributed worldwide. Another problem that is associated is with biofuels is the availability of biomass. Biomass availability is limited due to demand of food, hence production of non-edible crops that are grown for the sole purpose of biofuel production will be needed to overcome supply issues in the future. The volume of fuel that the marine industry demands likely can’t be produced from a single feedstock in the future so it’s likely that a blend of different biofuels produced from different feedstocks could be a possibility in the future.

[ES] Los combustibles bajos en carbono (LCF) se evalúan como un sustituto adecuado de los combustibles pesados fósiles actuales para un motor de combustión interna de encendido por compresión (CI ICE) en términos de rendimiento del motor, emisiones contaminantes e impacto ambiental. Los combustibles se evalúan de acuerdo con su factibilidad para sustituir los combustibles actuales del mercado con las alternativas LCF. A través de estudios directos y calibración optimizada específica del combustible, se aprovechan las características de bajas emisiones de los LCF para lograr menos emisiones contaminantes sin sacrificar la eficiencia del motor. La calibración se logra mediante la realización de un diseño de experimentos (DOE) a partir del cual se obtienen modelos para cada combustible, para posteriormente optimizar para bajas emisiones de NOx-hollín. Por último, se compara el impacto tanto de la calibración drop-in como de la calibración optimizada en un análisis de ciclo de vida (LCA) que tiene en cuenta la huella de CO2, así como otras categorías de impacto como la acidificación terrestre, la formación de partículas, el consumo de agua y la formación de ozono. En general, se encontró que los LCF probados pueden ser reemplazos adecuados para los CI ICE tanto en las calibraciones directas como en las optimizadas (aunque con algunas consideraciones de hardware), donde se puede alcanzar un rendimiento del motor similar a las líneas de base diésel actuales con importantes reducciones de contaminantes como NOx y hollín. Y adicionalmente, se comprobó que la proporción de renovabilidad del combustible es altamente beneficiosa para la reducción del impacto ambiental del combustible, donde los combustibles completamente renovables (como el LCD100 probado) podrían tener huellas de CO2 por kilómetro similares a las de los vehículos eléctricos en Europa, asumiendo que las materias primas y la energía para la producción de combustible provienen de fuentes renovables. / [CA] Els combustibles baixos en carboni (LCF) s'avaluen com un reemplaçament adequat dels combustibles pesats fòssils actuals per a un motor de combustió interna d'encesa per compressió (CI ICE) en termes de rendiment del motor, emissions contaminants i impacte ambiental. Els combustibles s'avaluen segons la seva viabilitat per substituir els combustibles actuals del mercat per les alternatives LCF. Mitjançant estudis d'abandonament i calibratge optimitzat específic del combustible, s'exploten les característiques de baixes emissions dels LCF per aconseguir emissions menys contaminants sense sacrificar l'eficiència del motor. El calibratge s'aconsegueix mitjançant la realització d'un disseny d'experiments (DOE) a partir del qual s'obtenen models per a cada combustible, per posteriorment optimitzar per a baixes emissions de NOx-sutge. Finalment, es compara l'impacte tant de la caiguda com del calibratge optimitzat en una anàlisi de cicle de vida (LCA) que considera la petjada de CO2, així com altres categories d'impacte com l'acidificació terrestre, la formació de partícules en suspensió, el consum d'aigua i la formació d'ozó. En general, es va trobar que els LCF provats poden ser reemplaçaments adequats per als CI ICE tant en les calibracions d'entrada com optimitzades (encara que amb algunes consideracions de maquinari), on es pot assolir un rendiment del motor similar a les línies de base dièsel actuals amb reduccions importants de contaminants com el NOx i el sutge. I addicionalment, es va comprovar que la proporció de renovable del combustible és altament beneficiosa per a la reducció de l'impacte ambiental del combustible, on els combustibles completament renovables (com el provat LCD100) podrien tenir petjades de CO2 per quilòmetre similars a les dels vehicles elèctrics a Europa, assumint que les matèries primeres i l'energia per a la producció de combustible provenen de fonts renovables. / [EN] Low carbon fuels (LCFs) are evaluated as a suitable replacement for current fossil heavy fuels for a compression ignition internal combustion engine (CI ICE) in terms of engine performance, pollutant emissions and environmental impact. The fuels are evaluated according to their feasibility to substitute current market fuels with the LCF alternatives. Through drop-in studies and fuel-specific optimized calibration, the low emission characteristics of the LCFs to achieve fewer polluting emissions without sacrificing the engine efficiency are exploited. The calibration is achieved by the realization of a design of experiments (DOE) from which models are obtained for each fuel, to be later optimized for low NOx-soot emissions. Finally, the impact of both the drop-in and optimized calibration are compared in a life cycle analysis (LCA) that considers the CO2 footprint, as well as other impact categories such as terrestrial acidification, particulate matter formation, water consumption and ozone formation. Overall, it was found that the tested LCFs can be suitable replacements for CI ICEs in both the drop-in and optimized calibrations (albeit with some hardware considerations), where engine performance similar to current diesel baselines can be reached with important reductions in pollutants like NOx and soot. And additionally, it was verified that the renewability proportion of the fuel is highly beneficial to the reduction of the environmental impact of the fuel, where completely renewable fuels (like the tested LCD100) could have CO2 footprints by kilometer similar to those of electric vehicles in Europe, assuming that raw materials and energy for the fuel production come from renewable sources. / This doctoral thesis has been partially supported by the Conselleria d'Innovació, Universitats, Ciència i Societat Digital de la Generalitat Valenciana through the predoctoral contract (ACIF/2021/200). / Guzmán Mendoza, MG. (2024). Impact of Different e-Fuels Types on Light Duty Compression Ignition Engine Performance, Emissions and CO2 Life Cycle Analysis [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/203090

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1985 M66 / Master of Science

Thesis (MScEng (Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Regulators and designers of nuclear reactors regard knowledge of the pebble fuel temperature as important, due to the role that it plays in maintaining structural integrity and the production of neutrons. By using special fuel assemblies fitted with measuring equipment it is possible to measure the fuel temperature in stationary fuel reactors. This, however, is not possible in the pebble bed modular reactor due to its dynamic core. Designers of the pebble bed modular reactor have reserved special inspection channel borings inside the center reflector for fuel temperature measurement. By means of optical fibers and interferometry, the temperature can be measured inside such a channel. Currently the only way to control the fuel surface and core temperature is by measuring the gas inlet and outlet temperatures. This thesis attempts to determine the pebble temperature by measuring the temperature in a reflector channel. This is done by constructing an electrically heated pebble bed experimental setup simulating a cutout section of a pebble bed modular reactor core. An additional computational fluid dynamics simulation of the experimental setup was also performed. This thesis also attempts to determine if there is a measureable temperature peak that can indicate where a pebble was in contact with the reflector surface. This could then be used in future studies to determine the pebble fuel velocity as it moves down the reactor core. The computational fluid dynamics results were validated by experimental measurements. In the computational fluid dynamics model and experimental setup, it was found that there was indeed a measureable temperature difference on the temperature gradient along the reflector wall. The heat being conducted away from the pebble through the contact area can explain this. These differences were only observed when the channel was moved closer to the pebbles and it is therefore advised that some redesigning of the channel should be done if the in-core temperature is to be accurately interpreted by the designers at PBMR (Pty) Ltd. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Reguleerders en ontwerpers van kern reaktore beskou die kennis van die korrel brandstof temperatuur as belangrik. Dit is weens die rol wat die brandstof temperatuur speel met die behoud van strukturele integriteit en die produksie van neutrone binne-in die reaktor. Met behulp van spesiale brandstof montasies toegerus met die meetings instrumentasie, is dit moontlik om die brandstof temperatuur in stilstaande brandstof reaktore te meet. Dit is egter nie moontlik in die korrel bed modulêre reaktor nie, as gevolg van sy dinamiese kern. Ontwerpers van die korrel bed modulêre reaktor het spesiale kanale in die binnekant van die middel reflektor vir brandstof temperatuur meeting gereseveer. Deur middel van optiese vesel en interferometrie, kan die temperatuur binne so 'n kanaal gemeet word. Tans is die enigste manier om die brandstof-oppervlak temperatuur te berekern, net moontlik deur gebruik te maak van die gemete gas inlaat-en uitlaat temperature van die reaktor. Hierdie tesis poog om vas te stel of die korrel brandstof temperatuur deur die meet van die oppervlak temperatuur in 'n reflektor-kanaal bepaal kan word. Dit word gedoen deur 'n elektriese verhitte korrel bed eksperimentele opstelling te bou wat 'n gedeelte van 'n korrel bed modulêre reaktor simuleer. 'n Bykomende numeriese simulasie van die eksperimentele opstelling was ook uitgevoer. Hierdie werk het ook probeer om vas te stel of daar 'n meetbare temperatuur piek op die temperatuur profiel aandui kan word waar 'n korrel in kontak is met die reflektor se oppervlak. Dit kan dan in toekomstige studies gebruik word om te bepaal wat die korrel brandstof spoed was soos dit in die reaktor beweeg. Die numerise simulasie uitslae was deur eksperimentele metings bevestig. In die numerise simulasie model en die eksperimentele opstelling, is daar gevind dat daar inderdaad 'n meetbare temperatuur verskil op die temperatuurgradiënt teen die reflektor oppervlak is. Dit kan verduidelik word as gevolg van die hitte wat weg van die korrel gelei word deur middel van die kontak area. Hierdie verskille was slegs waargeneem wanneer die kanaal nader aan die korrels geskuif is en dit word as n aanbeveling aan PBMR (Pty) Ltd gemaak om sommige herontwerpe aan die kanaal te doen indien die in-kerntemperatuur gemeet wil word en akkuraat geinterpreteer wil word.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The title of the study provides a summary of the content that is explored: The South African Liquid Fuels Market: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. A period spanning nearly 140 years is covered from 1882 to 2020. In “Yesterday”, the history of liquid fuels in South Africa is explored to understand the development of the liquid fuels market. The periods pre-1954, post-1954 and post-2003 are discussed. The period post-1954 is important due to the establishment of a highly developed crude oil refining and synthetic fuel production capability in South Africa. A section is also included to explain the international oil market because of the direct impact of crude oil and international oil prices on the South African liquid fuels market. “Today” explains the fuel price and demand and supply dynamics. The major role players in the liquid fuel market that shape the market are discussed. Government is actively involved in the market through the Department of Minerals and Energy and associated institutions, the CEF Group and Nersa. The South African Petroleum Association represents the seven largest oil companies in South Africa. An overview is provided of these seven companies and their operations in South Africa. In “Tomorrow”, international developments and domestic issues that will influence the liquid fuels market in the period 2010 to 2020 are identified. The future oil price and related issues of “peak oil” and fuel alternative vehicles have the ability to change the oil landscape dramatically. On the domestic side, the future petrol and diesel supply and demand balance are discussed in detail. The impact of the South African government on the market through clean fuel specifications and possible fuel price deregulation is also highlighted. It is clear from the study that historical as well as current supply and demand factors indicate that the South African liquid fuels market will continue to be a growth market that will be influenced by international oil market developments and domestic factors in the period 2010 to 2020. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die titel van die studie verskaf ‘n opsomming van die inhoud wat gedek word: Die Suid-Afrikaanse Brandstof Mark: Gister, Vandag en Môre. ‘n Periode van bykans 140 jaar word ondersoek wat strek vanaf 1882 tot 2020. “Gister” fokus op die geskiedenis van die brandstofmark in Suid-Afrika. Die periodes voor-1954, na-1954 en na-2003 word bespreek. In die periode na-1954 het Suid-Afrika ‘n indrukwekkende vermoë ontwikkel om ru-olie te raffineer en sintetiese brandstof te vervaardig. Die internasionale olie mark word ook bespreek as gevolg van die direkte impak wat ru-olie en internasionale olie pryse op die Suid-Afrikaanse brandstof mark het. “Vandag” verduidelik die brandstofprys asook vraag en aanbod faktore. Die belangrikste rolspelers wat die mark beinvloed word bespreek. Die regering is aktief betrokke in die mark deur die Deparment van Minerale en Energie en verwante organisasies, naamlik die CEF Groep en Nersa. Die Suid-Afrikaanse Branstofvereeniging verteenwoordig die sewe grootste olie maatskappye in Suid-Afrika. Die sewe maatskappye word bespreek en ‘n oorsig gegee oor hulle belange en bedrywighede in Suid-Afrika. In “Môre” word internasionale gebeure en plaaslike sake wat die brandstofmark in die periode 2010 tot 2020 kan beïnvloed ondersoek. Die toekomstige olie prys en verwante sake soos “spits olie” en voertuie wat van alternatiewe brandstof gebuik maak het die totale olie landskap verander. Op plaaslike vlak word die toekomstige petrol en diesel vraag en aanbod balans noukeurig ondersoek. Die Suid-Afrikaanse regering se impak deur skoon brandstof wetgewing en die moontlike de-regulering van die brandstofprys word beklemtoon. Die studie beklemtoon dat historiese asook huidige vraag en aanbod faktore daarop dui dat die Suid-Afrikaanse branstofmark steeds ‘n groeiende mark in die periode 2010 tot 2020 sal wees, wat beïnvloed sal word deur gebeure op die internasionale olie mark en plaaslike faktore.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Bioethanol and biodiesel are currently the main biofuels. The United States of America and Brazil are the major bioethanol producers from maize and sugar cane respectively. European and Asian countries produce and consume biodiesel as transportation fuel. Generally, governments want to avoid importing biofuels, since this erodes the advantage of fuel security from growing fuel locally. There are however opportunities for many African countries to export to Europe and the United States of America, since they have preferential import tax exemption agreements with African countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has large potential to produce biomass. Inherently, South Africa has poor potential to produce biomass, due to the climatic conditions and water scarcity. However, South Africa has infrastructure, skills, commercial farmers and, importantly, government policy on biofuels. These advantages should be leveraged to optimise gains from a biofuel industry. A biofuels industry holds potential in terms of job creation and rural development gains, apart from the advantages of fuel security, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions, stimulation of the agricultural sector, and reduced fuel imports with the balance of payment advantages. The South African government aims to develop rural communities in former homeland areas. If degraded land in these areas is recovered and used for production of biofuels, the environmental benefits are immediate and substantial. Fuel crop production in these areas does not compromise food security nor does it result in further deforestation. Creating jobs in rural areas can contribute to reduction of poverty. The Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) published its strategy in 2007. This excluded maize as permitted bioethanol feedstock, it sets a two per cent liquid fuels penetration target, and gave fuel tax exemptions for biodiesel and bioethanol. The biofuels would be distributed through voluntary low concentration blending into petroleum products by oil companies. The industry would be regulated and producers require licensing through the South African Revenue Service (SARS). The license conditions were mainly related to the type of feedstock, where it was produced, volumes produced, local consumption, environmentally friendliness, compliance with broad based black economic empowerment requirements and it should not compete with food sources. The strategy is up for review after the initial five years phase. Currently there are no commercial bioethanol fuel production plants in South Africa and only some small scale biodiesel production plants with very limited outlets to consumers. With all the apparent advantages, why is nothing happening in the industry? Business is not showing interest, proving that the economic conditions are not favourable. The government wants to control the production side to maximise the gains from it, but instead of assisting the industry, it has practically inhibited it from getting started. The consumers must also be prepared to accept the new fuels. Awareness, education and a culture of sustainable use are vital to create the required market. This is an exciting industry with potential benefits to South Africa and its society as a whole, but the fundamental elements of business must be in place in order for it to become self-sustainable.

Biomass waste has been recognised as a promising, renewable source for future transport fuels. With 1.7 million hectares of pine plantation forests and 12 million cubic meters of annual residue produced by sawmills and the pulp and paper industries, New Zealand presents a prime location where utilisation of these resources can take the next step towards creating a more environmentally friendly future. In this research, the process of fast pyrolysis was investigated using a laboratoryscale, nitrogen-blown fluidised bed pyrolyser at CRL Energy. This equipment can process 1–1.5 kg/h of woody biomass in a temperature range of 450–550°C. The purpose of this rig was to determine the impact of various processing parameters on bio-oil yields. Next, the pyrolysis liquids (bio-oil and tar) were processed downstream into bio-bitumen. Pyrolysis experiments were carried out on Pinus Radiata and Eucalyptus Nitens residue sawdust from sawmills and bark feedstock. The properties of the collected products, including pyrolysis liquids (bio-oil and tar), gas and solid bio-chars, were measured under different operational conditions. Further analysis was also performed to determine pH, volatile content, chemical composition and calorific values of the products. The ultimate goal for this project was to develop a feasible, advanced fast-pyrolysis system for a bio-bitumen production plant using various biomass feedstocks. Additionally, a design for a bio-bitumen production plant was developed, and techno-economic analysis was conducted on a number of plant production yield cases and bio-bitumen manufacture ratios.

The goal of this research was to identify and fabricate zeolitic membranes that can separate radioisotope krypton-85 (half-life 10.72 years) and xenon gas released during spent nuclear fuel reprocessing. In spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, fissionable plutonium and uranium are recovered from spent nuclear fuel and recycled. During the process, krypton-85 and xenon are released from the spent nuclear fuel as process off-gas. The off-gas also contains NO, NO2, 129I, 85Kr, 14CO2, tritium (as 3H2O), and air and is usually vented to the atmosphere as waste without removing many of the radioactive components, such as 85Kr. Currently, the US does not reprocess spent nuclear fuel. However, as a member of the International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC, formerly the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership), the United States has partnered with the international nuclear community to develop a “closed” nuclear fuel cycle that efficiently recycles all used nuclear fuel and safely disposes all radioactive waste byproducts. This research supports this initiative through the development of zeolitic membranes that can separate 85Kr from nuclear reprocessing off-gas for capture and long-term storage as nuclear waste. The implementation of an 85Kr/Xe separation step in the nuclear fuel cycle yields two main advantages. The primary advantage is reducing the volume of 85Kr contaminated gas that must be stored as radioactive waste. A secondary advantage is possible revenue generated from the sale of purified Xe. This research proposed to use a zeolitic membrane-based separation because of their molecular sieving properties, resistance to radiation degradation, and lower energy requirements compared to distillation-based separations. Currently, the only commercial process used to separate Kr and Xe is cryogenic distillation. However, cryogenic distillation is very energy intensive because the boiling points of Kr and Xe are -153 °C and -108 °C, respectively. The 85Kr/Xe separation step was envisioned to run as a continuous cross-flow filtration process (at room temperature using a transmembrane pressure of about 1 bar) with a zeolite membrane separating krypton-85 into the filtrate stream and concentrating xenon into the retentate stream. To measure process feasibility, zeolite membranes were synthesized on porous α-alumina support discs and permeation tested in dead-end filtration mode to measure single-gas permeance and selectivity of CO2, CH4, N2, H2, He, Ar, Xe, Kr, and SF6. Since the kinetic diameter of krypton is 3.6 Å and xenon is 3.96 Å, zeolites SAPO-34 (pore size 3.8 Å) and DDR (pore size 3.6 Å) were studied because their pore sizes are between or equal to the kinetic diameters of krypton and xenon; therefore, Kr and Xe could be separated by size-exclusion. Also, zeolite MFI (average pore size 5.5 Å) permeance and selectivity were evaluated to produce a baseline for comparison, and amorphous carbon membranes (pore size < 5 Å) were evaluated for Kr/Xe separation as well. After permeation testing, MFI, DDR, and amorphous carbon membranes did not separate Kr and Xe with high selectivity and high Kr permeance. However, SAPO-34 zeolite membranes were able to separate Kr and Xe with an average Kr/Xe ideal selectivity of 11.8 and an average Kr permeance of 19.4 GPU at ambient temperature and a 1 atm feed pressure. Also, an analysis of the SAPO-34 membrane defect permeance determined that the average Kr/Xe selectivity decreased by 53% at room temperature due to unselective defect permeance by Knudsen diffusion. However, sealing the membrane defects with polydimethylsiloxane increased Kr/Xe selectivity by 32.8% to 16.2 and retained a high Kr membrane permeance of 10.2 GPU at ambient temperature. Overall, this research has shown that high quality SAPO-34 membranes can be consistently fabricated to achieve a Kr/Xe ideal selectivity >10 and Kr permeance >10 GPU at ambient temperature and 1 atm feed pressure. Furthermore, a scale-up analysis based on the experimental results determined that a cross-flow SAPO-34 membrane with a Kr/Xe selectivity of 11.8 and an area of 4.2 m2 would recover 99.5% of the Kr from a 1 L/min feed stream containing 0.09% Kr and 0.91% Xe at ambient temperature and 1 atm feed pressure. Also, the membrane would produce a retentate stream containing 99.9% Xe. Based on the SAPO-34 membrane analysis results, further research is warranted to develop SAPO-34 membranes for separating 85Kr and Xe.