From pre-colonial leadership through to the Apartheid regime, local traditional authorities played an essential role in natural resource management throughout rural South Africa. The advent of democracy in 1994, however, generated much confusion over the modern function of traditional leaders in many rural communities, specifically regarding natural resource regulation. By understanding local perceptions of governance regimes, resource use initiatives can use and enhance institutions already in place to combat further over-harvesting. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the perceived functions of traditional and democratically elected community leaders in the governance of firewood harvesting and compare perceptions between interviewed leaders and their community members. The study was conducted in six villages spanning two chieftaincies and four municipal wards in Bushbuckridge Local Municipality, Mpumalanga Province. In-depth interviews were conducted with the following local leaders: the chiefs from the two chieftaincies, the nduna (headman) from each village, the ward councillor from each ward and three members of the Community Development Forum from each village. Five community focus group sessions were also run in each village to determine local community perspectives on wood availability and governance regimes. It was found that the majority of respondents, from both individual interviews and focus groups, believed that firewood availability had decreased in recent years. In addition, 21 of the 30 focus groups (across both chieftaincies) suggested that there was insufficient firewood to meet the needs of their village now. While all interviewed parties across both chieftaincies regarded the chief as the ultimate authority in firewood management, his actual system of regulation as well as the perceived roles and responsibilities of subsidiary leaders appears highly differentiated between the chieftaincies. Results also indicate that although there is some ambiguity around community-level firewood regulation, these instances of uncertainty are village-specific and could indicate diminished village-level enforcement of regulation. Overall, however, other lines of evidence evince a general weakening of traditional local control across all the villages. Some authors maintain that this deterioration of village firewood management stems from community confusion and/or contestation over the roles of local leaders. However, I argue that reduced government budgets as well as leader’s empathy for poor firewood-dependent households have also contributed to the increasingly relaxed implementation of strict firewood systems. With this in mind, future policy decisions need to consider ways in which to reduce rural over-harvesting, either by increasing the affordability of alternate energies or by implementing strategies that allow for continued firewood harvesting but in more sustainable ways. Recommendations that detail such approaches are presented for the study region.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2016. / ABSTRACT Sibudu rock shelter was occupied by hunter gatherer groups of modern humans during the Middle Stone Age between 77 and 38 000 (38 ka) years ago. Sibudu is in the summer rainfall region and is situated about 15 km inland of the eastern coast of South Africa. The site includes technological industries such as Still Bay and Howiesons Poort that are distinguished by specific stone tool types. Woody taxa identified from archaeological charcoal in this site, indicate changes in vegetation and wood use. Archaeological charcoal specimens, specifically from hearths on three putative occupation floors, were analysed for behavioural information about wood selection and use. Two of the stratigraphic layers, BYA2 (i) and SPCA, are approximately 58 ka old and the MOD layer is approximately 49 ka old. All three layers contain tools from the post-Howiesons Poort industry. Identifications of woody taxa were made by means of a comparative charcoal reference collection and the InsideWood database. Charcoal was studied under stereo and reflective light microscopes. Woody taxa identified confirmed that the coldest, driest phase of occupation was at approximately 58 ka. Bushveld woods, including five Acacia types, have been identified in charcoal from MOD layer, ~49 ka. The vegetation mosaic was different from today’s coastal forest and savanna near Sibudu. The availability of natural wood around Sibudu, visible in the type of wood burnt in hearths, has changed since 58 ka and 49 ka for either climatic or anthropogenic reasons or for a combination of these. In all three layers, the wood bundles include tinder, fuel, and a selection of woody plants that today are known to have medicinal bark, leaves and wood. People may have selected wood for burning properties (for example, temperature, light and coal production) and for medicine. Woods suitable for making firesticks for starting fires by means of friction are present. Wood from Spirostachys africana (tambotie) occurs in one hearth in each of the three layers. Since Spirostachys africana is normally avoided in cooking fires as it is poisonous, this suggests that the wood was selected deliberately and burnt for insecticidal smoke or other medicinal purposes. Tarchonanthus parvicapitulatus (syn. T. camphoratus) charcoal occurred in layer SPCA. This adds to the previous evidence of the use of aromatic plants at Sibudu, where sedge bedding was topped with aromatic, insecticidal Cryptocarya woodii (river-quince) leaves (Wadley et al. 2011. Science 334 (6061): 1388-1391). Wood use is different between hearths and surrounding sediments and between occupations dating 58 ka and 49 ka. Keywords: phytomedicine, Sibudu, Spirostachys africana, Acacia, charcoal analysis, wood anatomy / LG2017

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg 29 September 2017 / As in other developing countries in Africa, unsustainable harvesting of fuelwood in South Africa has become a matter of concern among policy makers and researchers. This is despite the country having the highest electrification access in the continent, because the majority of rural households in communal woodland areas cannot afford to cook on electric stoves, due to high levels of poverty and unemployment,. Moreover, relevant institutions do not have the capacity to monitor compliance with harvesting rules, resulting in resource users harvesting livewood due to the scarcity of deadwood with almost impunity, despite this constituting an illegal activity under the traditional management rules. Other interventions such as woodlots have largely been unsuccessful in addressing the unsustainable harvesting problems. Thus, researchers have recommended that rotational coppice harvesting be implemented by the local institutions in partnership with local resource users as a potential strategy to sustainably provide fuelwood, while addressing incapacity problems in terms of the shortage of physical and human resources in the relevant institutions. The majority of South Africans using fuelwood reside in the savanna biome which covers 34% of the country. Savanna tree species generally coppice (resprout) easily and this provides an opportunity for rotational harvesting strategies, involving local resource users. Although ecological data suggest that rotational harvesting of coppice regrowth can be sustainable, rotational harvesting of coppice has not gained popularity in South Africa, because of tenurial and institutional challenges in communal areas. Thus, whether or not rotational harvesting strategies are feasible in communal woodland is yet to be established. This thesis reports the findings of a study that assessed the implementation of a rotational harvesting scheme in selected rural communities. In order to investigate the ecological and socio-economic feasibility of community-based coppice management (CBCM), four communities across Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces (Thorndale, Peninghotsa, Homu and Makhuva) in South Africa were selected based on a set of criteria, and involved in a coppice management trial. The harvesting trial was implemented over a one year period by the local traditional leadership in partnership with local resource users and relevant government institutions, facilitated by the researcher. The trial was successfully piloted through one iteration of the adaptive management cycle in the first two villages. The intervention entailed rotational harvesting of specified stem size classes and species in blocks (coupes), according to consensus-based rules that were enforced by local institutions in cooperation with resource users. The study period was not long enough to monitor the rotational harvesting of coppice per se, but enabled the creation of coppice stools and a community-based system for rotational harvesting of wood resources. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this action research study to assess fuelwood harvesting and use patterns, ecological sustainability, social feasibility, and the adequacy of local resource-governance systems to implement CBCM, over the course of the first year of the intervention. Data such as energy mix used in the households, time spent acquiring fuelwood, compliance with harvesting rules, perceived cooperation between institutions, and socio-economic information were collected using questionnaires. Data were collected in two survey periods, the first occurring in early January 2014 before the trial started, and the second one from April 2014, after it had started, to January 2015. The fuelwood resource base, coppicing, and wood harvesting patterns in the village communal woodlands were assessed before and during the trial in fixed 100 m2 circular plots. Allometric equations were used to convert the observed density of stems and coppice shoots into wood biomass. The measured growth rates of coppice shoots were used to estimate the amount of time that would be required for shoots to reach the allowable harvest diameter of 4–9 cm, and hence the number of years required for one harvest rotation between coupes. These data, along with the measured rates of self-thinning of shoots and village wood demand, were used to make projections of fuelwood supply by coppice and unharvested stems in the village coupes over a number of harvest rotations. The effectiveness of management under traditional management rules and that of CBCM were assessed in focus group discussions, interviews and questionnaires with the local traditional leaders and key informant interviews with government rangers before and during the trial. Levels of compliance by resource users with the agreed CBCM rules were high in Thorndale and Peninghotsa because they were given an opportunity to decide and agree on harvesting rules that were conducive to their harvesting practices. Although the intervention did not change the energy use patterns in the households in these villages, local resource users spent significantly less time acquiring fuelwood than they did prior to the intervention, thus reducing the opportunity costs of wood harvesting. There was a noticeable decline in the incidence of illegal harvesting of fuelwood by “outsiders” due to greater vigilance by resource users and community-based monitors as a result of the successful implementation of CBCM in these villages. Based on the growth rate data averaged across species, coppice shoots would reach the harvestable diameter of 4 cm in 3 years in Thorndale and 4 years in Penninghotsa. The difference may be explained by species differences in these villages, e.g. Terminalia sericea which coppices vigorously was one of the predominant species recorded in Thorndale. The successful implementation of the trial in Thorndale and Pennighotsa in the first year of the intervention is attributed to a number of socio-economic factors, including relatively small and homogenous populations, innovative and adaptive local TAs which were flexible and had encouraged community participation and supportive resource users who had positive perceptions of their leadership and the project. This is in contrast to Homu 14B and Makhuva which were characterised by larger, more heterogeneous populations, inflexible leadership who were incapacitated by lack of physical resources, lack of transparency by the leadership, and negative attitudes and perceptions of resources users. This study demonstrates that community-based coppice management is potentially applicable and feasible for sustainable provision of fuelwood in communal areas, and identified under what conditions it is most likely to succeed. / MT2018

MPM / Oliver Tambo Institute of Governance and Policy Studies

Includes bibliography. / A proposal to develop the Upper Tugela Location in KwaZulu, Natal, prompted this study. This study aims to investigate the means to enhance the availability of, and access to, affordable energy sources in the Upper Tugela Location. A further aim is to match appropriate energy sources with the socio-economic conditions prevailing there. The Upper Tugela Location is an ecologically sensitive area of the Upper Tugela catchment. Rural energy planning has been criticized for the development of energy-conversion technologies while there is insufficient understanding of energy procurement practices in rural subsistence economies in South Africa. Qualitative information gained from a questionnaire survey, informal group discussions and direct observations suggest that the inhabitants of the Upper Tugela Location are relatively poor. For this reason a basic rural energy needs approach, which attempts to address the needs of the poorest, has been adopted to provide a theoretical base for the study. Research has revealed the following. Wood is the dominant energy source in the Upper Tugela Location. It is estimated that the annual household consumption of fuelwood is 3000 kg which is below the average fuelwood consumption for a rural area in South Africa. This reflects that this resource is being depleted to the degree that the local inhabitants are supplementing their use of fuelwood with expensive commercial fuels such as coal and paraffin. Locally available wood is in short supply, particularly in densely populated areas of the Upper Tugela Location. Most people are buying fuelwood from Natal farmers living on the borders of the study area. This results in an economic leakage from the Upper Tugela Location and dependence on extralocally available sources of energy. There appear to be few attempts to establish woodlots at present in the Upper Tugela Location. Equitable access to local supplies of wood are curtailed. Renewable sources of energy such as thermal and photovoltaic solar energy, micro-hydro and wind generated power, and afforestation have been investigated as have non-renewable sources of energy such as grid electricity and commercial fuels. It is concluded that no single technical option adequately addresses the energy needs of the inhabitants of the Upper Tugela Location. Most of the renewable sources of energy, except wood, are too expensive for subsistence economies and can be unreliable as they are still at the developmental stage. It is recommended that electricity from the national grid should be made available to those who can afford it. The means to improving the distribution of commercial fuels in the Upper Tugela Location should be addressed. Woody biomass management and agroforestry programmes provide the best options for an energy strategy for the Upper Tugela Location as they are inexpensive, require little maintenance, are sustainable and reliable, and serve conservation requirements at the same time.

Oliver Tambo Institute of Governance and Policy Studies / MPM

Thesis (MScFor (Forest and Wood Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Access to secure energy supplies is widely acknowledged as a critical foundation for sustainable development. Rural households are highly dependent on forest resources for their livelihoods including energy needs. Fuelwood is a non-timber forest product (NTFP) that accounts for one of the main uses of forests and woodlands. Despite substantial household electrification programmes in South Africa, the use of fuelwood as a source of energy continues. This study aimed to analyze fuelwood use patterns of two rural villages situated in Keiskammahoek in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa in order to understand the perceptions of the community members regarding communal tree planting. The study was conducted in two rural villages, namely, Cata and Tshoxa. A total of 120 respondents from both villages were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires to collect data on the use of fuelwood and evaluate their perception on tree planting. The study revealed that up to 77% of the people living in Keiskammahoek used fuelwood as a major source of energy and that women were the main collectors and users of fuelwood. In the rural Cata, food is cooked in three-legged pots over open fires while in Tshoxa food is mainly cooked over paraffin and electric stoves. The respondents from both villages did not have energy conservation measures in place and improved wood stoves have not been introduced in this region. The local community of Cata was also involved in tree planting on a community level, while both villages were also involved in tree planting at a household level. The study concluded that fuelwood was the most important product from the forests in both rural areas and natural forests were a valuable source of other NTFPs; most notably indigenous fruit products. In addition most of the fuelwood was used for cooking and heating purposes but that there was no deliberate use of energy efficient methods. On tree planting, the study showed that communities from both rural villages have an interest in planting trees around their households; with preference for fruit and shade trees. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Toegang tot betroubare energieverskaffing word algemeen erken as 'n uiters belangrike grondslag vir volhoubare ontwikkeling. Plattelandse huishoudings is hoogs afhanklik van bosbronne vir hul bestaan, met inbegrip van energiebehoeftes. Brandhout is 'n nie-hout bosproduk (NHBP) wat beskou word as een van die hoofgebruike van woude en boslande. Nieteenstaande wesenlike elektrifiseringsprogramme vir huishoudings in Suid-Afrika, duur die gebruik van brandhout as 'n bron van energie voort. Hierdie studie het beoog om die gebruikspatrone van brandhout van twee plattelandse dorpe in Keiskammahoek in die Oos-Kaapse Provinsie van Suid-Afrika te ontleed en om die begrip van die gemeenskap aangaande die gemeenskaplike plant van bome te verstaan. Die studie is in twee plattelandse dorpe, naamlik Cata en Tshoxa, uitgevoer. Onderhoude is gevoer met 'n totaal van 120 respondente van beide dorpe deur die gebruik van halfgestruktureerde vraelyste om gegewens oor die gebruik van brandhout in te samel en die respondente se begrip van die plant van bome te evalueer. Die studie het aan die lig gebring dat tot 77% van die mense wat in Keiskammahoek woon, brandhout as 'n hoofbron van energie gebruik en dat vrouens die hoofgaarders en gebruikers van brandhout is. In die landelike Cata word kos in driepootpotte op oop vure gekook terwyl kos in Tshoxa hoofsaaklik op paraffien- en elektriese stowe gekook word. Die respondente van beide dorpe het nie energiebesparingsmaatreëls in plek gehad nie en verbeterde houtstowe is nog nie in hierdie streek ingebring nie. Die plaaslike gemeenskap van Cata was ook betrokke by die plant van bome op 'n gemeenskapsvlak, terwyl beide dorpe ook betrokke was by die plant van bome op 'n huishoudelike vlak. Die studie het tot ’n gevolgtrekking gekom dat brandhout die belangrikste produk van die woude in beide plattelandse gebiede is en dat die natuurlike woude 'n belangrike bron van ander NHBP’s is; veral inheemse vrugteprodukte. Daarbenewens is meeste van die brandhout gebruik vir kook- en verhittingsdoeleindes, maar daar was geen doelbewuste gebruik van energiedoeltreffende metodes nie. Op die gebied van die plant van bome het die studie getoon dat die gemeenskappe van beide plattelandse dorpe belange het in die plant van bome rondom hulle huishoudings; met voorkeur aan vrugte- en skadubome.

Persistent poverty, social and economic inequalities are some of the challenges in the process of national development efforts targeted in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Yet in South Africa, poverty, hunger, social and economic inequalities are still on the increase especially among poor rural to urban migrants. Because of severe poverty in rural areas, large populations of rural poor migrate to urban areas in search of better life. However, the growing energy needs in the urban areas where these people settle and their use of inefficient energy technologies negatively impact on the balance of environmental resources on which their socio-economic development depends. Efficient, affordable and environmental friendly technologies are therefore vital for improving the livelihood conditions and protecting the much needed environmental resources of the country. On the contrary, current practices presently dominating energy provision issues in South Africa are insufficient to solve the problems of socio-economic inequalities, especially for the increasing urban poor population. In addition, they are also failing to protect the environment and natural resources. Electrification of poor urban and peri-urban areas by both grid and off-grid systems through the top-down development practice is doing very little to change the socio-economic conditions of the poor section of the population in the country. Likewise, the provision of modern energy through public sector agencies such as Eskom is inadequate and inappropriate for the rapidly expanding urban and peri-urban poor areas in the country. One major reason that hinders provision of such services to the overcrowded consumer population in these areas is the massive capital investment required and inability to pay electricity bills by urban poor households. Against the above background, this study examined the use of improved wood stoves in two peri-urban areas (Umsilinga and Isnathing) in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa as an alternative modern energy technology on how they would socio-economically benefit the peri-urban poor. It looked at the following: The efficiency of four improved wood stoves (Yamampera, Simunye, Household Rocket and Vesto) in comparison with the three stone open fire, The impact of the efficient burning of the four improved stoves, Factors influencing consumers in choosing a specific energy technology to use, The effectiveness of the improved wood stoves placed in 24 peri-urban households and observed for the specified period, and Additional potentials of such stoves to other prospective users. The key finding of this research is that the use of these improved wood stoves could play a pivital role in household economic growth and improving livelihoods. Participants ranked smokeless burning, low selling price, fuelwood saving and light weight of the stoves as priority preferences for using these stoves. Speed of cooking and less constant attention to the fire were also ranked as important preferences. From women participants view point, the low selling price of the stoves and their considerable fuel saving would reduce strain on the household investment capital, household indoor pollution and tedious work of women’s fuelwood collection. Low investment costs in acquiring the stoves would encourage women’s participation as entrepreneurs in modern energy technologies. However, results from focused group discussions and observations of usage of stoves that were placed in 24 homes showed that the incorporation of consumer preferences in the design of improved wood stoves would be key. This would enable stoves to adequately meet the energy needs of targeted users and be used frequently as an alternative energy solution by both urban and peri-urban poor who are currently lacking electricity and suffering from energy poverty. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermarizburg, 2009.

Thesis (MSc) -- Stellenbosch University, 1996. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT:Principle objectives of this study were to investigate the ecological feasibility of sustained utilization of mopane, using Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve as a pilot study area. The study was limited to three different mopane dominated vegetation types on the reserve with most research being conducted in C.mopane woodland. Results can be summarized as follows: 1. Colophospermum mopane is ubiquitous on VLNR. 2. C.mopane woodland has the deusest mopane growth of the three vegetation types and highest densities are found on soils (OaB, VaB, Du, SwB & VaA) in association with C.mopane woodland. There seems to be a correlation between mopane density and soil type. 3. Largest mopane trees according to height and circumference were found in C.mopane/C.apiculatum open woodland. There is no significant difference between height and circumference on different soil types. 4. Most senility occurs in C.mopane shrubland and there is a significant difference in senility between mopane associated with different soils on which this vegetation type occurs. 5. Oldest average ages per tree were fo•.md in C.mopane woodland while growth rates were fastest in C.moparse!C.apiculatum open woodland. 6. There is a significant positive correlation between total and charcoal weights for mopane. Total and charcoul weights per tree were highest for C.mopane/C.apiculatum open woodland, while weights per hectare were highest for C.mopane woodland. Soils could not positively be associated with this trend. 7. Mopar.e lends itself to harvesting, especially C.mopane ••10odland in the Endora, Lizzulea and Hilda areas. Winter months seem to be most desirable for harvesting activities. Hand felling in elongated patches (increases ecotone boundary) is recommended where labour is cheap. A harvesting strategy of between 25% and 50% would make the operation economically viable and ecologically acceptable. An optimum harvesting rate of 27% is suggested by a harvesting model developed specifically for this mopane data. 8. Total herbivore densities, distribution and species proportions can be expected to change following bush clearing. Habitat for grazers should increase due to an increased grass production. Habitat for browsers should not be influenced much. Effect of noise and human disturbance during harvesting, especially for elephants is negligible, as hunting activities already take place on VLNR. 9. Grass production would increase but quality should decrease after harvesting, due to an increase in low quality opportunistic species, especially if soil disturbance takes place. Grass quality is best in association with herbaceous species such as Salvadora angustifolia. Carrying capacity for grazers should increase after harvesting as a result of habitat change and grass biomass increase. 10. Total browse production would decrease but leaf biomass should increase on remaining trees as they have improved water availability due to Q lack of intra­ specific competition. Higher seed production and more flowering takes place at lower tree densities. Greatest advantages for browsers after harvesting, is the fact that leaves become senescent later in autumn and that spring leaf flush takes place earlier thus prolonging bro\'se availability. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING:Die hoof doelwitte van hierdie studie was om te bepaal wat die invloed van die oes van mop nie op die ekologie sou wees as dit op 'n volgehoue basis plaasvind en tot w•atter mate mopanie geskik is vir hou skoolvervaardiging. Die navorsing is op die Venetia Limpopo Natuureservaat in slegs drie van die belangrikste mopanie veldtipes uitgevoer met die oorgrote meerderheid van die navorsing in die C.mopane bosveld. Die resultate van die studie kan soos volg opgesom word: 1. Colophospermum mopane is alomteenwoordig op die VLNR. 2. Die C.mopane bosveld het die hoogste digtheid van al drie veldtipes en word ook geassosieer met sekere grondtipes (OaB, VaB, Du, SwB & VaA) wat eie is aan hierdie spesifieke veldtipe. Daar blyk 'n korrelasie te wees tussen die digthede van mopanie en grondtipes. 3. Die grootste mopanie borne, ten opsigte van hnogte en omtrek, word in die C.mopane/C.apiculatum oop bosveld aangetref. Daar is nie 'n beduidende verskil tussen die hoogte en omtrek van mopanie op die verskillende grondtipes nie. 4. Die C.mopane struikveld toon die meeste seniliteit ten opsigte van die persentasie kruin dood. Daar is 'n definitiewe aanduiding dat seniliteit ooreenstem met sekere grondtipes veral met betrekking tot die mopanie struikveld. 5. Die C.mopane bosveld het gemiddeld die oudste borne terwyl die C.mopane/C.apiculatum oop bosveld die vinnigste groeikoers toon. Die bogenoemde feite het 'n ver0and met die grondtipes. 6. Daar is 'n posltiewe korrelasie tussen die totale gewig en die houtskoolgewig van mopanle. Die S\vaarste borne is in die C.mopane!C.apiculatum oop bosveld aangetref, terwyl die swaarste gewig per hektaar in die C.mopane bosveld aangetref is. Gewig kon nie met grondt pes gekorreleer word nie. 7. Die mopanie in die C.mopane bosveld is geskik vir die oes vir houtskool, veral in die Endora, Lizzulea en Hilda gebiede. Dit is raadsaam om die borne in verlengde stroke per hand af te kap (vergroot die ekotoongebied), veral waar arbeid goedkoop is. 'n Oesstrategie van tussen 25% en 50% vir mopanie word aanbeveel om dit ekonomies en ekologies aanvaarbaar te maak. 'n Optimum oesstrategie van 27% word aanbeveel deur 'n oes model wat spesifiak vir hierdie mopane data opgestel is. 8. Daar kan verwag word dat na die oes van mopanie die getalle asook verspreidingspatrone van alle hoefdierspesies kan verander. 'n Voordeel van lae mopanie digthede is dat die verspreiding van die blaarbiomassa ewerediger oor die seisoene sal geskied. Grasvreters word bevoordeel vanwee die verandering in habitat. Die effek van geraas en ander oesbedrywighede op olifante behoort klein te wees aangesien jagaktiwiteite alreeds op diereservaat toegepas word en hulle redelik gewoond daaraan behoort te wees. 9. Grasproduksie behoort toe te neem terwyl die kwaliteit daarvan afneem as gevolg van opportunistieslae kwaliteit grasspcsies wat toeneem na die oes van mopanie, veral as die grand tydens oesaktiwiteite versteur word. Die beste kwaliteit gras word in assosiasie met kruidagtige spesies, veral Salvadora angustifolia, gevi.nd. As gevolg van die verandering in habitat asook die toename in grasbiomassa neem die drakrag vir grasvreters na die oes an mopanietoe. 10. Di.e totale blaarbi.)massa behoort na die oes van mopanie af te neem, maar behoort terselfdertyd op die oorblywende borne as gevolg van die afname in kompetisie vi= watr en anrler natuurlike hulpbronne toe te neem. Hoer persentasies blomvorming en saadproduksie vind by laer boomdigthede plaas. Die grootste enkele voordeel vir blaarvreters, na die oes van mopanie, is die feit dat die blare later in die herfs afval en vroeer in die lente uitbot en dus die voedselbeskikbaarheid vir blaarvreters verleng.

The importance of ecological systems in supporting social systems has been identified as one of the most important facets of sustainable development. Consequently, a number of international and local laws and policy interventions have been established to ensure that natural resource use remains sustainable. In rural areas, overdependence on fuel wood has commonly been identified as one of the biggest threat to forestry ecosystems. This in turn has led to environmental degradation that includes among others species depletion, soil erosion and decline in water and air quality. Based on the myriad problems caused by over-reliance on fuel wood, this study sought to identify usage, management and perceived implication of woodland exploitation in Port St Johns local municipality in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Using interviews and questionnaires for key respondents in the local community, the study identified two key threats to socio-ecological stability resulting from wood fuel exploitation namely; high poverty levels and lack of coordination in the management of wood fuel resources. Apart from using fuel wood for domestic use, local fuel wood exploitation has been commercialized to augment household incomes. Lack of coordination in the management of natural resources has also created a vacuum in the exploitation and management of fuel wood resources. The study did not have inclination towards statistics such as chi-square and t-tests since the research questions and objectives did not refer to any relationship or significance level. The study recommends non-wood based alternative sources of energy, improved coordination and harmonization of functions among different stakeholders and emphasis on collaboration between traditional and local governance in the management fuel wood and the local physical environment. The study further recommends resuscitation of indigenous knowledge and socio-ecological stability