The regulation of gene expression at the transcriptional level is one of the paramount mechanisms for maintaining control of growth, development and metabolic homeostasis. The Liver X Receptor (LXRa) is a novel member of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily of transcription factors, which was originally isolated in our laboratory. Subsequent studies have revealed that LXRa is an essential transcriptional regulator of cholesterol homeostasis and a number of potent LXRa activators, including the oxysterol 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol have also been identified. As other members of the superfamily, LXRa exerts its regulatory control of target genes directly by binding to LXRa-responsive enhancer elements (LXREs), located upstream of the target gene promoter. Our laboratory initially demonstrated that LXRa heterodimerizes with the Retinoid X Receptor (RXRa) and cooperatively binds to a synthetic LXRE (DR4- LXRE), which consists of direct repeats of the hexad core consensus sequence spaced by four nucleotides. Tc date, two naturally occurring LXREs have been identified, including the LXRE--L\MTV element, located in the promoter region of the mouse mammary tumor vims long terminal repeat and the CYP7 A-LXRE element, located in the proximal promoter region of the rat cholesterol a-hydroxylase gene. In order to delineate the mechanism by which LXRa mediates the transcriptional regulation of target genes, a series of highly integrated characterization studies were initiated. Our initial interest was identifying the transactivation properties ofLXRa. Thus, a series of tramient transfection studies were performed, which investigated the effect of various LXREs, ligands/activators and cell lines on LXRa.-mediated transactivation. Ultimately, these studies revealed that the LXRa.-mediated transcriptional response was highly varied and specifically dependent upon the response element, ligand and cell line employed. Thus, these investigations indicate the specificity and great diversity in the nuclear hormone receptor-mediated transcriptional regulation of target genes. Furthermore, these studies resulted in the establishment of a viable and efficient transient transfection assay for further LXRa. in vivo investigations. Nuclear hormone receptors, including LXRa., are comprised of several modular domains termed AlB, C, D and E. A number of recent studies have implicated the highly divergent AlB domain of variety of nuclear receptors, and their isoforms, as a participant in transactivation. Specifically, these nuclear receptors have been shown to posses, within their respective AlB domains, an autonomous ligand-independent transactivation function termed the AF-1 domain, which can either function independently or can synergize with the E domain of the same receptor. Thus, determination of whether or not the 97 amino acid AI B domain of LXRa. participated in LXRa.-mediated transactivation became a main focus; in our investigation of LXRa.. In vitro EMSA analysis revealed that deletion of up to 63 amino acids of the N-terminal region of the LXRa. AlB domain did not effect either LXRa./ RXR.a. heterodimerization nor cooperative binding to LXREs. In vivo transient transfection assays further illustrated that theN-terminal 63 amino acids of the LXR.a. AlB domain were dispensable for LXR.a./RXR.a.-mediated transactivation. Therefore, as determined by the limitations of these assays, theNIV terminal63 amino acids of the LXRa AlB domain do not participate in neither transactivation nor heterodimerization and subsequent binding to LXR.Es. Transcriptional regulation, mediated by members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, has been shown to involve multiple auxiliary co-factors, which modulate receptor-mediated tnmsactivation. These co-factors can either serve to repress (corepressors) or activate (co-activators) transcription not only through blocking or facilitating interactio r1s, respectively, between receptors and the basal transcription machinery but also through chromatin remodeling. Thus, the identification of LXRainteracting co-facton and the subsequent investigation of their ability to modulate LXRamediated transactiva1ion, were of particular interest. We demonstrated, via utilization of in vitro GST-binding assays, that LXRa interacts with RIP 140, SRC-1a and SMRT cofactors in a ligand-independent manner. Furthermore, these studies illustrate that the LXRa AF-2 core domain is necessary for efficient RIP 140 and SRC-1a binding. Surprisingly, this domain appears to impede, although not absolutely, the SMRTILXRa interaction, which has also been observed for the Retinoic Acid Receptor (RAR)/SMRT interaction. Functional studies ofLXRa, RXRa and RIP 140 indicate that RIP 140 antagonizes LXRa/RXR.a-mediated transactivation, which suggests that RIP 140 may serve to attenuate the transcriptional response of nuclear receptors modulated by other, more potent co-activators, as previously suggested in Peroxisome Proliferator-activated receptor a (PPARa);RIP 140 studies. As well, it is apparent that neither'the RIP 140/LXRa interaction nor the RIP 140-mediated repression of LXRa activity is effected upon deletion of the N-terminal 63 amino acids of the LXR.a. AlB domain. Interestingly, functional studies of LXR.a., RXR.a. and the partial SRC-1a clone, which lacks the Nterminal PAS-bHLH domain, indicate that this SRC-1a clone antagonized LXR.a.IRXR.a.mediated transactivation. While this result may simply demonstrate the necessity for a full length SRC-1a clone it may also indicate SRC-1 isoform-specific differences as previously illustrated in Estrogen Receptor (ER)/SRC-1 studies. Lastly, preliminary functional studies of LXR.a., RXR.a. and S:MR.T indicate that S:MR.T has no significant effect on LXR.a./RXR-mediated transactivation. These tentative results indicate that while LXR.a. and SMRT interaction in solution, S:MR.T may not be able to interact with LXR.a. when bound to DNA, and is thus unable to modulate LXR.a.-mediated transcriptional activation as previously demonstrated for the PP ARy and the orphan receptor Rev Erb. Taken together, the investigations presented in this study of LXR.a., further our understanding of not only the mechanism by which LXR.a. mediates its transcriptional response, but also hew nuclear receptors achieve specificity and diversity in the activation of target gene expression. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

No description available.

A síndrome SPOAN (acrônimo do inglês spastic paraplegia, optic atrophy and neuropathy) é uma doença neurodegenerativa de herança autossômica recessiva que tem como achados clínicos a atrofia ótica congênita não progressiva, paraplegia espástica e neuropatia ambas progressivas. Ela havia sido mapeada na região cromossômica 11q13, porém a variante patogênica e o gene associados à síndrome não haviam sido identificados. Após execução do sequenciamento do genoma completo de um paciente foi detectada a deleção de 216-pb (chr11.hg19:g.66,024,557_66,024,773del) em homozigose localizada em região regulatória upstream do gene KLC2. Surpreendentemente, essa deleção causa superexpressão do KLC2, detectada em estudos de Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) utilizando fibroblastos e neurônios motores de pacientes comparados com controles. Ensaios utilizando o Danio rerio como modelo in vivo mostraram que tanto o knockdown quanto a superexpressão do klc2 em embriões de zebrafish causa o fenótipo de cauda curvada (leve ou grave); fenótipo esse associado às doenças neurodegenerativas e HSPs. Superexpressão de um gene causada por uma pequena deleção em região regulatória é um novo mecanismo que até então não havia sido descrito na condição autossômica recessiva. Estudos funcionais por meio de gene reporter de LacZ avaliando o padrão de expressão espaço-temporal da região regulatória wild-type e com a deleção de 216-pb foram realizados nesse trabalho em modelo de camundongo, porém, não foi possível identificar um padrão de expressão reprodutível do gene reporter nesse modelo. Por fim, camundongos transgênicos para a superexpresão do KLC2 humano foram gerados, no entanto não foram realizados testes físicos e comportamentais para validar o transgênico como modelo para síndrome SPOAN / SPOAN (the acronym of its clinical symptoms) syndrome is a neurodegenerative disorder mainly characterized by a progressive spastic paraplegia, congenital non-progressive optic atrophy and progressive neuropathy. A potential causative gene was mapped at 11q13, but so far no gene and mutation were identified. Whole-genome sequencing allowed to detect a homozygous 216-bp deletion (chr11.hg19:g.66,024,557_66,024,773del) located at the regulatory upstream region of the KLC2 gene. Surprisingly, this deletion causes KLC2 overexpression detected by Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) using fibroblasts and motor-neurons from patients compared with controls. Assays using Danio rerio as in vivo model showed that the klc2 knockdown either its overexpression in zebrafish embryos causes mild to severe curly-tail phenotype; phenotype that is already well defined as suggestive of a neurodegenerative disorder and HSP. Overexpression of a gene caused by a small deletion in the regulatory region is a novel mechanism, which to the best of our knowledge, was never reported before in a recessive condition. Functional studies using LacZ reporter assay evaluating the spatiotemporal expression pattern of wild-type regulatory region and with the deletion of 216-bp were performed in this work using mouse, but was not possible to identify an especific gene reporter expression pattern in this animal model. As a last experiment, transgenic mice for human KLC2 overexpression were generated, though behavioral tests were not performed to validate this transgenic animal as a model for SPOAN syndrome

O transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) é um dos transtornos psiquiátricos mais freqüentes da infância e adolescência, sendo caracterizado por sintomas de desatenção, hiperatividade e impulsividade. A contribuição genética na etiologia do TDAH é uma das mais altas já verificadas para transtornos psiquiátricos, com herdabilidade média estimada de 76%. Dentre os fatores genéticos que contribuiriam para o desenvolvimento da doença, genes que codificam componentes do sistema dopaminérgico estão entre os principais candidatos. Entre estes, o gene que codifica o receptor D4 de dopamina (DRD4) é o loco mais intensamente investigado nos estudos moleculares com o TDAH. O polimorfismo mais estudado no DRD4 é um VNTR de 48 pb localizado no exon 3; porém outros polimorfismos, localizados na região promotora do gene – uma duplicação de 120pb e os SNPs -521C>T e - 616C>G – também vêm sendo propostos como polimorfismos de suscetibilidade ao TDAH. Além desses, novas variantes em regiões regulatórias do gene, os SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228, foram observados recentemente em associação com sintomas de desatenção do TDAH. O objetivo geral do presente trabalho foi aumentar a compreensão acerca da participação do gene DRD4 na etiologia do TDAH na nossa população Para tanto, foi testada inicialmente a possibilidade de associação do SNP rs11246227, sendo em seguida investigado o significado funcional dos SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228, e sua possível relação com a doença, através de ferramentas de bioinformática. O estudo de associação foi realizado em uma amostra composta por 478 pacientes com TDAH, diagnosticados segundo os critérios do DSM-IV, e seus pais biológicos. O rs112466227 foi investigado por abordagens baseada em família (FBAT) e dimensional (PBAT, ANOVA). A possibilidade de desequilíbrio de ligação (DL) com polimorfismos previamente investigados na presente amostra foi estimada pelo programa MLocus. A análise in silico foi realizada utilizando diferentes bases de dados genômicos e programas de predição de sítios alvo para miRNAs e de funcionalidade. A análise pelo FBAT mostrou um desvio significativo da transmissão do alelo C nos pacientes do subtipo desatento. Foram observadas evidências de DL com a duplicação de 120bp e com o VNTR do exon 3. As análises de bioinformática mostraram que os SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228 estão localizadas na região 3’ do gene DRD4, e não na região 5’, como previamente descrito. Diferenças entre os alelos, com perda ou ganho de sítios de ligação para diferentes miRNAs, foram detectados em ambos os SNPs pelos programas MicroInspector, 5 smiRNAdb e miRecords, e apenas no rs11246227 pelos programas Human miRNA Target e Mirò. A grande variabilidade e a complexidade genética marcante do gene DRD4 aliada à heterogeneidade fenotípica do TDAH provavelmente contribuíram para nossos resultados de associação, divergentes dos descritos na literatura, os quais necessitam de replicação em estudos futuros. Nossos achados em bioinformática sugerem um possível envolvimento dos SNPs investigados com a ligação de miRNAs relacionados aos processos de neurogênese e neuroplasticidade. Genes envolvidos com estes processos vêm sendo identificados nos genome-wide association studies realizados com o TDAH, o que apóia nossos resultados in silico. Entretanto, mais estudos funcionais são necessários, tanto in silico como in vitro, para esclarecer o envolvimento dos polimorfismos analisados na regulação da expressão do gene DRD4 via miRNAs e, consequentemente, do possível efeito desses elementos na etiologia da doença. / Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood and adolescence, characterized by inattentive, hyperactive and impulsive symptoms. Genetic contribution to ADHD etiology is one of the highest ever recorded for psychiatric disorders, with a mean heritability of 76%. Among genetic factors that could contribute to disorder development, genes encoding components from dopaminergic system are the main candidate. Of these, the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) is the most extensively investigated locus in molecular studies of ADHD. The most studied polymorphism in DRD4 gene is a variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) of 48bp, located at exon 3, although other polymorphisms, located in promoter region – a 120bp duplication and the SNPs -521C> T and-616C> G – have also been proposed as susceptibility polymorphisms for ADHD. In addition, new variants in regulatory regions, the SNPs rs11246227 and rs11246228, have recently been associated with inattentive symptoms of the disorder. The overall objective of this study was to increase the understanding on the involvement of DRD4 gene in ADHD etiology in our population For this purpose, the possibility of association with the SNP rs11246227 was initially tested, being afterwards investigated the functional effect of both rs11246227 and rs11246228 and their possible relation to ADHD through bioinformatics approach. The association study was performed in a sample composed by 478 ADHD patients, diagnosed according to DSM-IV criteria, and their biological parents. The rs112466227 was investigated by both family-based (FBAT) and dimensional (PBAT, ANOVA) approaches. The possibility of linkage disequilibrium (LD) with polymorphisms previously investigated in the present sample was estimated by MLocus software. In silico analysis was conducted using different genomic databases and programs to predict miRNA target sites and functionality. FBAT analysis showed a significant excess of C allele transmission in inattentive subtype patients. Evidences of LD with both 120bp tandem duplication and exon 3 VNTR were observed. Bioinformatics analyses showed that both SNPs rs11246227 and rs11246228 are located in the 3' region of DRD4 gene, and not at 5’ region, as previously described. Differences between alleles, with loss or gain of binding sites, were detected in both SNPs by MicroInspector, smiRNAdb and miRecords, and only in rs11246227 by Human miRNA Targets and miRò DRD4 huge variability and marked genetic complexity allied to ADHD phenotypic heterogeneity might have contributed to our 7 association results, distinct from the ones reported in literature, what needs to be replicated in future studies. Our bioinformatics findings suggest a possible involvement of investigated SNPs in binding properties of miRNAs related to processes of neurogenesis and neuronal plasticity. Genes involved in these processes have been identified in ADHD genome-wide association studies, reinforcing our in silico results. However, new functional studies, using both in silico and in vitro approaches, are needed to clarify the involvement of the investigated polymorphisms in DRD4 expression control mediated by miRNAs and, consequently, the possible effect of these elements in ADHD etiology.

O transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) é um dos transtornos psiquiátricos mais freqüentes da infância e adolescência, sendo caracterizado por sintomas de desatenção, hiperatividade e impulsividade. A contribuição genética na etiologia do TDAH é uma das mais altas já verificadas para transtornos psiquiátricos, com herdabilidade média estimada de 76%. Dentre os fatores genéticos que contribuiriam para o desenvolvimento da doença, genes que codificam componentes do sistema dopaminérgico estão entre os principais candidatos. Entre estes, o gene que codifica o receptor D4 de dopamina (DRD4) é o loco mais intensamente investigado nos estudos moleculares com o TDAH. O polimorfismo mais estudado no DRD4 é um VNTR de 48 pb localizado no exon 3; porém outros polimorfismos, localizados na região promotora do gene – uma duplicação de 120pb e os SNPs -521C>T e - 616C>G – também vêm sendo propostos como polimorfismos de suscetibilidade ao TDAH. Além desses, novas variantes em regiões regulatórias do gene, os SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228, foram observados recentemente em associação com sintomas de desatenção do TDAH. O objetivo geral do presente trabalho foi aumentar a compreensão acerca da participação do gene DRD4 na etiologia do TDAH na nossa população Para tanto, foi testada inicialmente a possibilidade de associação do SNP rs11246227, sendo em seguida investigado o significado funcional dos SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228, e sua possível relação com a doença, através de ferramentas de bioinformática. O estudo de associação foi realizado em uma amostra composta por 478 pacientes com TDAH, diagnosticados segundo os critérios do DSM-IV, e seus pais biológicos. O rs112466227 foi investigado por abordagens baseada em família (FBAT) e dimensional (PBAT, ANOVA). A possibilidade de desequilíbrio de ligação (DL) com polimorfismos previamente investigados na presente amostra foi estimada pelo programa MLocus. A análise in silico foi realizada utilizando diferentes bases de dados genômicos e programas de predição de sítios alvo para miRNAs e de funcionalidade. A análise pelo FBAT mostrou um desvio significativo da transmissão do alelo C nos pacientes do subtipo desatento. Foram observadas evidências de DL com a duplicação de 120bp e com o VNTR do exon 3. As análises de bioinformática mostraram que os SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228 estão localizadas na região 3’ do gene DRD4, e não na região 5’, como previamente descrito. Diferenças entre os alelos, com perda ou ganho de sítios de ligação para diferentes miRNAs, foram detectados em ambos os SNPs pelos programas MicroInspector, 5 smiRNAdb e miRecords, e apenas no rs11246227 pelos programas Human miRNA Target e Mirò. A grande variabilidade e a complexidade genética marcante do gene DRD4 aliada à heterogeneidade fenotípica do TDAH provavelmente contribuíram para nossos resultados de associação, divergentes dos descritos na literatura, os quais necessitam de replicação em estudos futuros. Nossos achados em bioinformática sugerem um possível envolvimento dos SNPs investigados com a ligação de miRNAs relacionados aos processos de neurogênese e neuroplasticidade. Genes envolvidos com estes processos vêm sendo identificados nos genome-wide association studies realizados com o TDAH, o que apóia nossos resultados in silico. Entretanto, mais estudos funcionais são necessários, tanto in silico como in vitro, para esclarecer o envolvimento dos polimorfismos analisados na regulação da expressão do gene DRD4 via miRNAs e, consequentemente, do possível efeito desses elementos na etiologia da doença. / Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood and adolescence, characterized by inattentive, hyperactive and impulsive symptoms. Genetic contribution to ADHD etiology is one of the highest ever recorded for psychiatric disorders, with a mean heritability of 76%. Among genetic factors that could contribute to disorder development, genes encoding components from dopaminergic system are the main candidate. Of these, the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) is the most extensively investigated locus in molecular studies of ADHD. The most studied polymorphism in DRD4 gene is a variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) of 48bp, located at exon 3, although other polymorphisms, located in promoter region – a 120bp duplication and the SNPs -521C> T and-616C> G – have also been proposed as susceptibility polymorphisms for ADHD. In addition, new variants in regulatory regions, the SNPs rs11246227 and rs11246228, have recently been associated with inattentive symptoms of the disorder. The overall objective of this study was to increase the understanding on the involvement of DRD4 gene in ADHD etiology in our population For this purpose, the possibility of association with the SNP rs11246227 was initially tested, being afterwards investigated the functional effect of both rs11246227 and rs11246228 and their possible relation to ADHD through bioinformatics approach. The association study was performed in a sample composed by 478 ADHD patients, diagnosed according to DSM-IV criteria, and their biological parents. The rs112466227 was investigated by both family-based (FBAT) and dimensional (PBAT, ANOVA) approaches. The possibility of linkage disequilibrium (LD) with polymorphisms previously investigated in the present sample was estimated by MLocus software. In silico analysis was conducted using different genomic databases and programs to predict miRNA target sites and functionality. FBAT analysis showed a significant excess of C allele transmission in inattentive subtype patients. Evidences of LD with both 120bp tandem duplication and exon 3 VNTR were observed. Bioinformatics analyses showed that both SNPs rs11246227 and rs11246228 are located in the 3' region of DRD4 gene, and not at 5’ region, as previously described. Differences between alleles, with loss or gain of binding sites, were detected in both SNPs by MicroInspector, smiRNAdb and miRecords, and only in rs11246227 by Human miRNA Targets and miRò DRD4 huge variability and marked genetic complexity allied to ADHD phenotypic heterogeneity might have contributed to our 7 association results, distinct from the ones reported in literature, what needs to be replicated in future studies. Our bioinformatics findings suggest a possible involvement of investigated SNPs in binding properties of miRNAs related to processes of neurogenesis and neuronal plasticity. Genes involved in these processes have been identified in ADHD genome-wide association studies, reinforcing our in silico results. However, new functional studies, using both in silico and in vitro approaches, are needed to clarify the involvement of the investigated polymorphisms in DRD4 expression control mediated by miRNAs and, consequently, the possible effect of these elements in ADHD etiology.

La Tachycardie Ventriculaire Polymorphe Catécholaminergique (TVPC) est une pathologie rythmique héréditaire rare et sévère, responsable de mort subite chez le sujet jeune. Les mutations des gènes RYR2 et CASQ2 sont associées respectivement à une transmission autosomique dominante et récessive de la maladie. Le canal calcique RyR2 et la protéine chélatrice du calcium Casq2 sont situés dans le réticulum sarcoplasmique (RS) où ils participent au complexe de relâchement calcique (CRC), essentiel à l'homéostasie calcique cardiaque. L'analyse de RYR2 et CASQ2 chez 214 probands ayant présenté une TVPC nous a permis d'identifier respectivement des mutations chez 75 et 11 probands. Deux cas de mosaïques germinales et somatiques ont été identifiés dans le gène RYR2. Deux mutations d'épissage du gène CASQ2 ont été validées à l'aide de minigènes. Chez 97 patients négatifs pour RYR2 et CASQ2, nous avons décidé de rechercher des mutations de trois protéines du CRC (la triadine, la junctine et FKBP12.6) en séquençant les gènes correspondants. Nous n'avons retrouvé aucune mutation de la junctine, ni de FKBP12.6. En revanche, nous avons identifié trois mutations de la triadine: une micro-délétion et une mutation non-sens entraînant un codon stop prématuré, ainsi qu'une variation faux-sens, dont la caractérisation à l'aide de modèle animal et cellulaire a montré qu'elle entraînait une dégradation massive de la protéine. Les mutations du gène TRDN seraient associées à une absence de triadine entraînant une dysfonction du CRC, à l'origine des arythmies observées. En conclusion, nos résultats confirment que RYR2 est le gène majeur impliqué dans la TVPC, CASQ2 étant rarement impliqué; et nous rapportons, pour la première fois, des mutations du gène TRDN en pathologie humaine, associée à une forme autosomique rare de TVPC. / Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT) is a rare and severe inherited arrhythmogenic disorder, responsible for sudden death in young patients. It is a genetically heterogenous pathology with an autosomal dominant form associated with mutations of the RYR2 gene, and a recessive form associated with mutations of the CASQ2 gene. The ryanodine receptor RyR2 is a Ca2+ channel, and the calsequestrin Casq2 is the major calcium storage protein, located in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the cardiomyocytes. They belong to the calcium release complex (CRC) that plays a central role in excitation-contraction coupling. In this work, we report the identification of RYR2 and CASQ2 mutations in 75 and 11 CPVT probands, respectively. We identified two cases of germline and somatic mosaicism in RYR2. Two splicing mutations of CASQ2 have been validated using a splicing minigene assay. We searched for mutations among 97 CPVT probands, negative for RYR2 and CASQ2, in three candidate genes: TRDN, ASPH and FKBP1B, encoding three proteins of the CRC. We did not identify any mutation of ASPH and FKBP1B genes. However, we found three mutations in the TRDN gene, encoding the cardiac triadin: a microdeletion, a nonsense mutation, both leading to a premature stop codon, and a missense mutation. We demonstrated that the missense mutation induces a drastic reduction of the protein in cellular and animal models. All the three mutations would thus be associated with the absence of triadin, leading to dysfunction of the CRC, and arythmias. In conclusion, our results confirm that RYR2 is the major gene implicated in CPVT, and CASQ2 rarely implicated. Moreover, we report mutations of the TRDN gene for the first time in pathology, as a third gene associated with a rare autosomal recessive form of CPVT.

O transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) é um dos transtornos psiquiátricos mais freqüentes da infância e adolescência, sendo caracterizado por sintomas de desatenção, hiperatividade e impulsividade. A contribuição genética na etiologia do TDAH é uma das mais altas já verificadas para transtornos psiquiátricos, com herdabilidade média estimada de 76%. Dentre os fatores genéticos que contribuiriam para o desenvolvimento da doença, genes que codificam componentes do sistema dopaminérgico estão entre os principais candidatos. Entre estes, o gene que codifica o receptor D4 de dopamina (DRD4) é o loco mais intensamente investigado nos estudos moleculares com o TDAH. O polimorfismo mais estudado no DRD4 é um VNTR de 48 pb localizado no exon 3; porém outros polimorfismos, localizados na região promotora do gene – uma duplicação de 120pb e os SNPs -521C>T e - 616C>G – também vêm sendo propostos como polimorfismos de suscetibilidade ao TDAH. Além desses, novas variantes em regiões regulatórias do gene, os SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228, foram observados recentemente em associação com sintomas de desatenção do TDAH. O objetivo geral do presente trabalho foi aumentar a compreensão acerca da participação do gene DRD4 na etiologia do TDAH na nossa população Para tanto, foi testada inicialmente a possibilidade de associação do SNP rs11246227, sendo em seguida investigado o significado funcional dos SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228, e sua possível relação com a doença, através de ferramentas de bioinformática. O estudo de associação foi realizado em uma amostra composta por 478 pacientes com TDAH, diagnosticados segundo os critérios do DSM-IV, e seus pais biológicos. O rs112466227 foi investigado por abordagens baseada em família (FBAT) e dimensional (PBAT, ANOVA). A possibilidade de desequilíbrio de ligação (DL) com polimorfismos previamente investigados na presente amostra foi estimada pelo programa MLocus. A análise in silico foi realizada utilizando diferentes bases de dados genômicos e programas de predição de sítios alvo para miRNAs e de funcionalidade. A análise pelo FBAT mostrou um desvio significativo da transmissão do alelo C nos pacientes do subtipo desatento. Foram observadas evidências de DL com a duplicação de 120bp e com o VNTR do exon 3. As análises de bioinformática mostraram que os SNPs rs11246227 e rs11246228 estão localizadas na região 3’ do gene DRD4, e não na região 5’, como previamente descrito. Diferenças entre os alelos, com perda ou ganho de sítios de ligação para diferentes miRNAs, foram detectados em ambos os SNPs pelos programas MicroInspector, 5 smiRNAdb e miRecords, e apenas no rs11246227 pelos programas Human miRNA Target e Mirò. A grande variabilidade e a complexidade genética marcante do gene DRD4 aliada à heterogeneidade fenotípica do TDAH provavelmente contribuíram para nossos resultados de associação, divergentes dos descritos na literatura, os quais necessitam de replicação em estudos futuros. Nossos achados em bioinformática sugerem um possível envolvimento dos SNPs investigados com a ligação de miRNAs relacionados aos processos de neurogênese e neuroplasticidade. Genes envolvidos com estes processos vêm sendo identificados nos genome-wide association studies realizados com o TDAH, o que apóia nossos resultados in silico. Entretanto, mais estudos funcionais são necessários, tanto in silico como in vitro, para esclarecer o envolvimento dos polimorfismos analisados na regulação da expressão do gene DRD4 via miRNAs e, consequentemente, do possível efeito desses elementos na etiologia da doença. / Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood and adolescence, characterized by inattentive, hyperactive and impulsive symptoms. Genetic contribution to ADHD etiology is one of the highest ever recorded for psychiatric disorders, with a mean heritability of 76%. Among genetic factors that could contribute to disorder development, genes encoding components from dopaminergic system are the main candidate. Of these, the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) is the most extensively investigated locus in molecular studies of ADHD. The most studied polymorphism in DRD4 gene is a variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) of 48bp, located at exon 3, although other polymorphisms, located in promoter region – a 120bp duplication and the SNPs -521C> T and-616C> G – have also been proposed as susceptibility polymorphisms for ADHD. In addition, new variants in regulatory regions, the SNPs rs11246227 and rs11246228, have recently been associated with inattentive symptoms of the disorder. The overall objective of this study was to increase the understanding on the involvement of DRD4 gene in ADHD etiology in our population For this purpose, the possibility of association with the SNP rs11246227 was initially tested, being afterwards investigated the functional effect of both rs11246227 and rs11246228 and their possible relation to ADHD through bioinformatics approach. The association study was performed in a sample composed by 478 ADHD patients, diagnosed according to DSM-IV criteria, and their biological parents. The rs112466227 was investigated by both family-based (FBAT) and dimensional (PBAT, ANOVA) approaches. The possibility of linkage disequilibrium (LD) with polymorphisms previously investigated in the present sample was estimated by MLocus software. In silico analysis was conducted using different genomic databases and programs to predict miRNA target sites and functionality. FBAT analysis showed a significant excess of C allele transmission in inattentive subtype patients. Evidences of LD with both 120bp tandem duplication and exon 3 VNTR were observed. Bioinformatics analyses showed that both SNPs rs11246227 and rs11246228 are located in the 3' region of DRD4 gene, and not at 5’ region, as previously described. Differences between alleles, with loss or gain of binding sites, were detected in both SNPs by MicroInspector, smiRNAdb and miRecords, and only in rs11246227 by Human miRNA Targets and miRò DRD4 huge variability and marked genetic complexity allied to ADHD phenotypic heterogeneity might have contributed to our 7 association results, distinct from the ones reported in literature, what needs to be replicated in future studies. Our bioinformatics findings suggest a possible involvement of investigated SNPs in binding properties of miRNAs related to processes of neurogenesis and neuronal plasticity. Genes involved in these processes have been identified in ADHD genome-wide association studies, reinforcing our in silico results. However, new functional studies, using both in silico and in vitro approaches, are needed to clarify the involvement of the investigated polymorphisms in DRD4 expression control mediated by miRNAs and, consequently, the possible effect of these elements in ADHD etiology.

A síndrome SPOAN (acrônimo do inglês spastic paraplegia, optic atrophy and neuropathy) é uma doença neurodegenerativa de herança autossômica recessiva que tem como achados clínicos a atrofia ótica congênita não progressiva, paraplegia espástica e neuropatia ambas progressivas. Ela havia sido mapeada na região cromossômica 11q13, porém a variante patogênica e o gene associados à síndrome não haviam sido identificados. Após execução do sequenciamento do genoma completo de um paciente foi detectada a deleção de 216-pb (chr11.hg19:g.66,024,557_66,024,773del) em homozigose localizada em região regulatória upstream do gene KLC2. Surpreendentemente, essa deleção causa superexpressão do KLC2, detectada em estudos de Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) utilizando fibroblastos e neurônios motores de pacientes comparados com controles. Ensaios utilizando o Danio rerio como modelo in vivo mostraram que tanto o knockdown quanto a superexpressão do klc2 em embriões de zebrafish causa o fenótipo de cauda curvada (leve ou grave); fenótipo esse associado às doenças neurodegenerativas e HSPs. Superexpressão de um gene causada por uma pequena deleção em região regulatória é um novo mecanismo que até então não havia sido descrito na condição autossômica recessiva. Estudos funcionais por meio de gene reporter de LacZ avaliando o padrão de expressão espaço-temporal da região regulatória wild-type e com a deleção de 216-pb foram realizados nesse trabalho em modelo de camundongo, porém, não foi possível identificar um padrão de expressão reprodutível do gene reporter nesse modelo. Por fim, camundongos transgênicos para a superexpresão do KLC2 humano foram gerados, no entanto não foram realizados testes físicos e comportamentais para validar o transgênico como modelo para síndrome SPOAN / SPOAN (the acronym of its clinical symptoms) syndrome is a neurodegenerative disorder mainly characterized by a progressive spastic paraplegia, congenital non-progressive optic atrophy and progressive neuropathy. A potential causative gene was mapped at 11q13, but so far no gene and mutation were identified. Whole-genome sequencing allowed to detect a homozygous 216-bp deletion (chr11.hg19:g.66,024,557_66,024,773del) located at the regulatory upstream region of the KLC2 gene. Surprisingly, this deletion causes KLC2 overexpression detected by Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) using fibroblasts and motor-neurons from patients compared with controls. Assays using Danio rerio as in vivo model showed that the klc2 knockdown either its overexpression in zebrafish embryos causes mild to severe curly-tail phenotype; phenotype that is already well defined as suggestive of a neurodegenerative disorder and HSP. Overexpression of a gene caused by a small deletion in the regulatory region is a novel mechanism, which to the best of our knowledge, was never reported before in a recessive condition. Functional studies using LacZ reporter assay evaluating the spatiotemporal expression pattern of wild-type regulatory region and with the deletion of 216-bp were performed in this work using mouse, but was not possible to identify an especific gene reporter expression pattern in this animal model. As a last experiment, transgenic mice for human KLC2 overexpression were generated, though behavioral tests were not performed to validate this transgenic animal as a model for SPOAN syndrome

Le soufre est un macronutriment essentiel contribuant à l’élaboration du rendement et de la qualité des graines. Chez les espèces modèles M. truncatula et Arabidopsis, les gènes associés à la réduction du sulfate et à la biosynthèse des acides aminés soufrés sont exprimés dans l’embryon lors du remplissage de la graine, soulignant l’importance du transport de sulfate jusqu’à ce tissu. Chez M. truncatula, trois gènes codant des transporteurs de sulfate putatifs, MtSultr3;5, MtSultr2;2, et MtSultr4;1, sont fortement exprimés dans la graine. Le criblage des populations de mutants disponibles a permis d’identifier des mutants Tnt1 et EMS pour ces gènes. Cette étude a parallèlement été élargie à la caractérisation de mutants ADN-T d’Arabidopsis pour les cinq transporteurs de sulfate du groupe 3 (de la membrane plasmique) et pour SULTR4;1 (vacuolaire), dont les gènes s’expriment dans la graine en développement. Un rôle des transporteurs du groupe 3 dans les échanges de sulfate à l’intérieur de la graine a été mis en évidence. En particulier, l’analyse du protéome des graines de ces mutants a révélé un défaut d’accumulation des formes processées des protéines de réserve au sein de l’embryon (sultr3;5) et des modulations spécifiques de la composition protéique suggérant l’utilisation de sources alternatives de soufre (sultr3;4). Enfin, les résultats contrastés obtenus pour le mutant sultr4;1 suggèrent un rôle de l’efflux de sulfate des vacuoles pour le maintien de l’homéostasie redox lors du développement de la graine. / Sulfur is an essential macronutrient contributing to crop yield and seed quality. In the model species M. truncatula and Arabidopsis, genes involved in sulfate reduction and sulfur amino acid biosynthesis are expressed in the embryo during seed filling, underlying the importance of sulfate transport until this tissue. In M. truncatula, three genes encoding putative sulfate transporters, MtSultr3;5, MtSultr2;2, et MtSultr4;1, are strongly expressed in seeds. By screening mutant collections, we identified Tnt1 and EMS mutants for these genes. In parallel, this study was extended to the characterization of Arabidopsis T-DNA mutants for the five sulfate transporters belonging to group 3 (plasmalemma-located) and SULTR4;1 (vacuolar), whose genes are expressed in developing seeds. A role of the group 3 sulfate transporters in sulfate exchange between seed tissue was revealed. In particular, seed proteome analysis for these mutants revealed a reduced accumulation of storage protein processing within the embryo (sultr3;5), and specific modulations of protein composition suggesting the utilization of alternative sulfur sources (sultr3;4). Finally, contrasted results obtained for the sultr4;1 mutant suggest a role of sulfate efflux from vacuole for maintaining redox homeostasis during seed development.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by pathogenic variants in either TSC1 or TSC2 tumor suppressor genes. It affects more often the brain, skin, kidneys, heart, lungs, and retina. The protein products of both genes, TSC1 (hamartin) and TSC2 (tuberin), interact, assembling a complex that inhibits mTORC1. Cells with bi-allelic inactivation of either TSC1 or TSC2 genes present hyperactivation of mTORC1, which phosphorylates downstream targets, up-regulating cell proliferation and growth. Moreover, a functional role as heat-shock protein (HSP) co-chaperone has been assigned to TSC1 protein. The first aim of the thesis was to analyze the nature, distribution and functional effects of TSC1 and TSC2 DNA variants from 100 patients with definite clinical diagnosis of TSC. We analyzed leukocyte DNA of 115 TSC patients from three Brazilian tertiary referral hospitals. Pathogenic DNA variants were detected in 99 (86,09%) unrelated individuals; 17 (17,17%) in TSC1 and 82 (82,82%) in TSC2. Clear loss-of-function mutations were detected in 87 patients, of which frameshift (29.29%) and nonsense (29.29%) variants were the most common types. In- frame deletions, missense and putative splicing DNA variants with uncertain clinical significance (VUS) have been functionally assessed. Five variants significantly increased phosphorylation of the reporter residue S6K Thr 389 . Forty-one novel pathogenic DNA variants and 19 novel single nucleotide variants have been detected. Among the 11 individuals with no mutation identified, seven presented rare putative missense, splicing or in- frame deletion DNA VUS. To understand the regulatory relationship of TSC1/2 gene expression, we aimed to evaluate TSC1 and TSC2 mRNA and protein levels in human cell lines with bi-allelic inactivation of each gene. We employed high throughput transcriptome analysis (RNA-Seq) and Western blotting of HEK293T and other six HEK293T-derived cell lines that had the genomic sequence of the TSC1 and or TSC2 genes edited by the CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-CAS9 system. In lack of either TSC1 or TSC2 protein, a significant reduction of the respective mRNA was observed, inferring no positive transcriptional feedback. Serum-deprived cell lines without TSC1 decreased TSC2 mRNA levels. Under these conditions, TSC1 mRNA levels were not negatively affected by the lack of TSC2. In one cell line with loss of TSC1 (1C2) TSC1/2 mRNA and TSC2 protein levels were consistently decreased independently on serum. RNA-Seq gene ontology analyses comparing 1C2 to HEK293T reference cell line disclosed down-regulation of translational pathways independently on serum; and up-regulation of protein folding and stability pathways upon serum withdrawal. Our data are consistent with the role of TSC1 as HSP co-chaperone, and suggest that TSC1 mRNA may be regulated at both transcriptional and decay levels / O complexo de esclerose tuberosa (TSC) é um distúrbio autossômico dominante causado por variantes patogênicas em um de dois genes supressores de tumor TSC1 ou TSC2. Afeta mais frequentemente o cérebro, a pele, os rins, o coração, os pulmões e a retina. Os produtos proteicos de ambos os genes, TSC1 (hamartina) e TSC2 (tuberina), interagem formando um complexo que inibe o mTORC1. As células com inactivação bi- alélica dos genes TSC1 ou TSC2 apresentam hiperactivação de mTORC1, que fosforila alvos a jusante, regulando positivamente a proliferação e o crescimento celular. Além disso, o papel funcional da co-chaperona da proteína de choque térmico (HSP) foi atribuído à proteína TSC1. O primeiro objetivo dessa tese foi analisar a natureza, distribuição e os efeitos funcionais das variantes de DNA de TSC1 e TSC2 de 100 pacientes com diagnóstico clínico definitivo de TSC. Analisamos o DNA de leucócitos de 115 pacientes com TSC de três hospitais brasileiros de referência. Variantes de DNA patogênico foram detectadas em 99 (86,09%) indivíduos não relacionados; 17 (17,17%) em TSC1 e 82 (82,82%) em TSC2. Mutações de perda de função foram detectadas em 87 pacientes, dos quais as variantes frameshift (29,29%) e nonsense (29,29%) foram os tipos mais comuns. Deleções in-frame, variantes missense e variantes de splicing com significância clínica incerta (VUS) foram avaliadas funcionalmente. Cinco variantes aumentaram significativamente a fosforilação do resíduo repórter S6K Thr 389 . Quarenta e uma novas variantes de DNA patogênico e 19 novas variantes de nucleotídeo único foram detectadas. Entre os 11 indivíduos sem mutação identificada, sete apresentaram variantes raras missense, splicing ou deleções in-frame do tipo VUS. Para entender a relação regulatória da expressão do gene TSC1/2, tivemos com segundo objetivo avaliar os níveis de mRNA e proteína de TSC1 e TSC2 em linhagens de células humanas com inativação bi-alélica de cada gene. Empregamos uma análise de transcriptoma de alto rendimento (RNA-Seq) e Western blotting de HEK293T e outras seis linhagens celulares derivadas de HEK293T que possuíam a sequência genomica dos genes TSC1 e/ou TSC2 editados por CRISPR- CAS9. Na falta da proteína TSC1 ou TSC2, foi observada uma redução significativa do respectivo mRNA, inferindo ausência de feedback transcricional positivo. Linhagens celulares privadas de soro TSC1 -/- diminuíram os níveis de mRNA de TSC2. Sob estas condições, os níveis de mRNA de TSC1 não foram afetados negativamente pela falta de TSC2. Numa linhagem celular com a perda de TSC1 (1C2), os RNAm de TSC1/2 e os níveis de proteína de TSC2 foram consistentemente diminuídos independentemente no soro. Análise de RNA-Seq comparando a linhagens celular de 1C2 com a referência HEK293T revelou uma regulação negativa de vias de tradução independentemente no soro; e supra-regulação das vias de enrolamento e estabilidade das proteínas após a retirada do soro. Nossos dados são consistentes com o papel do TSC1 como co-chaperona de HSP, e sugerem que o mRNA de TSC1 pode ser regulador nos níveis de transcrição