Durante o período de operação de um empreendimento mineiro, oportunidades de aumento de capacidade produtiva podem gerar ganhos significativos para uma empresa. Para os casos em que se viabiliza maior capacidade de produção da mina deve-se avaliar a capacidade de processamento da usina de beneficiamento, que assim inclui melhorias de desempenho ou expansão mediante adição de equipamentos. Este trabalho contempla a descrição das etapas de amostragem, caracterização do minério, a modelagem do circuito existente e a simulação para aumento da capacidade do circuito de moagem da usina da Mineração Serra Grande da AngloGold Ashanti, situada no município de Crixás no interior de Goiás. Os cenários simulados foram (1) adição de um terceiro moinho de bolas em série aos moinhos existentes, (2) adição de um terceiro moinho de bolas em paralelo ao circuito existente, (3) adição de um moinho vertical para processamento do produto dos dois moinhos de bolas existentes e (4) adição de uma prensa de rolos após o circuito de britagem. O propósito das quatro simulações foi avaliar a viabilidade técnica dos circuitos selecionados mediante modelagem matemática e simulação de processos, assim como dimensionar os novos equipamentos para tal fim. / During operation of the mining cycle, increases the throughput would generate significant capital savings for a company. For cases that enables higher mine production capacity, it must be evaluated plant capacity and also performance improvements or expansion by adding new equipment. This study includes the description of the sampling methodology, the minerals analysis, modeling of the existing circuit and simulation for a possible expansion, specifically for the grinding circuit at Mineração Serra Grande plant of AngloGold Ashanti group, located in Crixás, Goiás. the studied scenarios were: (1) adding a third ball mill in series with existing two ball mills, (2) adding a third ball mill in parallel with existing mills, (3) adding a vertical mill in series with existing mills and (4) adding high pressure grinding rolls to existing mills. The four simulations intend assess the technical feasibility of the circuits selected by mathematical modeling and simulation of processes and design new equipment for this purpose.

A prática de simulação computacional é tradicionalmente utilizada para a otimização de circuitos industriais de cominuição. Neste tipo de trabalho, a metodologia geralmente inclui as etapas de amostragem, modelamento e a simulação de diversas alternativas para a otimização do circuito. Esta prática se destaca por não envolver a necessidade de plantas piloto ou testes industriais. Com isso, configurase como uma opção de baixo custo e ágil, permitindo a análise detalhada de diversas opções de fluxograma e condições operacionais, exigindo, para tanto, mão de obra qualificada nesta metodologia e um computador com o software adequado. Este trabalho demonstra a aplicação da prática de simulação computacional no circuito de moagem do Sossego, da Vale, localizada na região sudeste do Estado do Pará. Tendo em vista o caráter pioneiro do circuito de moagem existente no Sossego, que inclui o primeiro moinho semi-autógeno de grande porte do Brasil, foi realizada também uma extensa revisão bibliográfica sobre a operação e a otimização desse tipo de circuito, visando contribuir para a consolidação deste conhecimento no país. / The practice of computer simulation is traditionally used for the optimization of industrial grinding circuits. The methodology usually includes surveying campaigns at the selected circuit, followed by data analysis, mass balancing and modeling. The latter consists in fitting mathematical models of each process equipment. Once the simulator is calibrated, a number of simulations may be carried out in order to explore different operating scenarios, related to optimization on the basis of selected performance indices. The simulation is thus an alternative for extensive and expensive pilot plant campaigns, as well as industrial tests. Accordingly, simulation is a low cost and low time demanding alternative, allowing the detailed assessment of several flowsheet options and/or operation conditions, even though it demands a qualified person and a professional software. This work presents an application of computer simulation program carried out at the Vale´s Sossego industrial grinding plant, located at the south-east part of Para state. As the Sossego circuit includes the first large diameter semiautogenous mill installed in Brazil, the literature review was largely focused on operating and optimization aspects of such a process, thus seeking to consolidate this kind of knowledge in Brazil.

Orientador: Eduardo Carlos Bianchi / Banca: Hamilton José de Mello / Banca: Carlos Elias da Silva Junior / Resumo: A retificação é um dos processos mais importantes quando deseja-se atribuir extrema precisão, acabamento e qualidade a superfície da peça, sendo amplamente utilizado na indústria, atribui-se suas características a um processo de usinagem que emprega um rebolo com grãos abrasivos girando em alta velocidade para remover material. Suas aplicações consistem especialmente no final da cadeia produtiva, onde a retificação normalmente representa o último processo por onde a peça irá passar. O rebolo é constituído de grãos abrasivos e poros, unidos por um material aglomerante (ligante), formando uma estrutura abrasiva. Todavia, os rebolos podem possuir diferentes propriedades, uma vez que a dureza dos grãos abrasivos, resistência à abrasão, estrutura cristalina, forma, tamanho e friabilidade podem afetar a durabilidade e o desempenho do abrasivo. Assim, se faz muito importante a escolha correta do rebolo, pois suas propriedades influenciarão diretamente na produtividade e na qualidade da peça que é possível se obter com a utilização deste, levando em consideração os parâmetros do processo e o material a ser retificado. A seleção do material do grão abrasivo mais apropriado para cada operação tem que ser embasada de acordo com o material a ser retificado, além de possuir uma relação custo-benefício aplicável industrialmente. Fluidos de corte lubrificam e refrigeram a zona de corte, porém são prejudiciais ao meio ambiente e aos seres humanos, adicionando custos à indústria. Atrelado a i... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Grinding is one of the most important processes when it is desired to assign extreme precision, finish and quality to the workpiece surface, being widely used in industry, its characteristics are attributed to a machining process that employs an abrasive grinding wheel spinning at high speed to remove material. Its applications consist especially at the end of the production chain, where grinding usually represents the last process through which the part will pass. The grinding wheel consists of abrasive grains and pores, joined by a binder material, forming an abrasive structure. However, the grinding wheels may have different properties, since abrasive grain hardness, abrasion resistance, crystalline structure, shape, size and friability can affect the durability and performance of the abrasive. Thus, it is very important to choose the correct grinding wheel because its properties will directly influence the productivity and quality of the part that can be obtained with the use of this one, taking into account the parameters of the process and the material to be grinding. The selection of the most suitable abrasive material for each operation has to be based on the material to be rectified, besides having an industrially applicable cost-benefit ratio. Cutting fluids lubricate and cool the cutting zone, however they are harmful to the environment and humans, adding costs to the industry. Linked to this, an effective and relatively inexpensive method of controlling corrosion ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Orientador: Paulo Roberto de Aguiar / Banca: José Alfredo Covolan Ulson / Banca: Fabricio Guimarães Baptista / Banca: Arthur Alves Fiocchi / Banca: Alessandro Roger Rodrigues / Resumo: O processo de retificação é um processo amplamente utilizado para produzir formas complexas e tolerâncias precisas em peças que são necessárias especialmente para a fabricação de componentes de engenharia. A retificação é um processo de manufatura situado na parte final da cadeia de usinagem, consistindo em uma operação de remoção de material da superfície da peça usinada e utiliza como ferramenta de corte o rebolo. No decorrer do processo de retificação a ferramenta de corte sofre desgaste e com isso, torna-se necessária a realização do processo de dressagem, cuja finalidade é restaurar a eficiência de corte do rebolo. A grande dificuldade no processo de retificação consiste em identificar o momento correto para a realização da dressagem e, para isso torna-se necessária a realização do monitoramento da ferramenta de corte (rebolo). Neste contexto, no presente trabalho desenvolveu-se uma técnica inovadora de diagnóstico da integridade superficial do rebolo, durante o processo de dressagem, baseada em imagens acústicas obtidas por meio de diafragma piezelétrico. Para isso, foram realizadas marcas (falhas) em um rebolo e, posteriormente, realizados ensaios com várias profundidades de dressagem, coletando sinais por meio de um sensor de emissão acústica e de um diafragma piezelétrico. Com base nesses sinais, foram avaliadas bandas de frequência para a obtenção de imagens acústicas que representassem com maior fidelidade e nitidez as marcas impressas no rebolo. Por fim, ambos os ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The abrasive machining process is a widely used process for producing complex shapes in work pieces and for providing precise tolerances that are especially required for the production of engineering components. Grinding is a manufacturing process placed at the end of the machining chain, consisting of an operation to remove material from the surface of the machined part and uses grinding wheels as a cutting tool. During the grinding process the cutting tool suffers wear and tear, and thus, it is necessary to perform the dressing process, whose purpose is to restore the cutting efficiency of the grinding wheel. The great difficulty in the grinding process is to identify the correct moment to perform the dressing, and for that reason, it is necessary to perform the monitoring of the cutting tool (grinding wheel). In this context, the present work made possible the development of an innovative technique to diagnose the surface integrity of the grinding wheel, during the dressing process, based on acoustic maps obtained through the piezoelectric diaphragm. Therefore, some patterns (marks) on a grinding wheel were performed and, later, tests were carried out with several dressing depths, acquiring signals from a commercial acoustic emission sensor and a piezoelectric diaphragm. Based on these signals, frequency bands were evaluated to obtain acoustic maps that represented with more fidelity and sharpness the marks inserted in the grinding wheel. Finally, both sensors (acoustic em... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Decisions has in recent years become more challenging, today the environment is changing in an exponentially increasing pace. This is not the only challenge with modern decision making, there are also: multiple criteria, intangibles, risk/uncertainty, long term implications, interdisciplinary input, pooled decision making, value judgment and unintended consequences. The purpose of the study is to create a model that provides a structured way of comparing and evaluate different alternatives for a decision making process, regarding profitability in a production station. The developed decision support model has its roots in the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) improvement cycle, where the planning phase has been modified. The planning phase of the model consists of seven steps that identify the process and perform a cost-break-down structure of the cost related to the process. This enables weights to be created and compared to each other and finally against other investment alternatives. This facilitates a structured approach, which minimizes some of the risks that can be involved in decision making and is further decreased by discovering uncertainties. The decision making model have been tested on two different production processes in a manufacturing company that is considering improvement investments.

Size reduction processes, particularly fine grinding systems, in mineral processing and cement production plants constitute a great portion of energy consumption and operating costs. Therefore, the grinding systems should be designed properly and operated under optimum conditions to achieve productive and cost effective operations. The use of simulation based on kinetic mathematical models of grinding has proven useful in this respect. The kinetic models contain two essential parameters, namely, breakage rate and breakage distribution functions, that are to be determined experimentally, and preferably in laboratory, or by back-calculation from the mill product size distribution for a given feed size distribution. Experimental determination of the breakage parameters has been mostly carried out in laboratory batch mills using one-size-fraction material. The breakage rate parameter is obtained from the disappearance rate of this one-size-fraction material, while the breakage distribution parameters are estimated from the short-time grinding of the same material. Such laboratory methods using one-size fraction material, however, are not truly representative of industrial continuous mill operations where the mill contents have a distribution of particle sizes. There is evidence in the literature that the size distribution of the mill contents affects the breakage parameters. This thesis study was undertaken with the main purpose of investigating the effect of the size distribution of the mill hold-up on the brekage parameters of quartz and calcite minerals in lockedcycle dry grinding experiments. The locked-cycle and one-size-fraction experiments were performed in the Bond ball mill instrumented with a torque-measuring device. Different closing screen sizes were used in the locked-cycle work to produce different size distributions of the mill hold-up, and the operating conditions were changed in the one-size-fraction experiments to obtain different power draws. Particle breakage parameters were assessed for these changing conditions. Prior to the experiments related to the main purpose of the study, preliminary experiments were conducted for two reasons: (i) to find the power draw of the Bond mill in relation to the operating conditions with the intention of eliminating the use of costly torque-measuring devices by others / and (ii) to find the most accurate estimation method of breakage distribution functions among the three existing methods, namely, the &ldquo / zero-order production of fines&rdquo / method, the BII method, and the G-H method. The G-H method was found to be more appropriate for the current study. The locked-cycle grinding experiments revealed that the breakage rate function of coarse fractions increased with increasing proportion of fines in the mill hold-up. Breakage distribution functions were found to be environment-dependent and non-normalizable by size in one-size-fraction and locked cycle grinding experiments. It was concluded that the cumulative basis breakage rate function could sufficiently represent the breakage characteristics of the two studied materials in a wide range of operating conditions. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to evaluate the breakage characteristics of materials ground in ball mills by linearized form of the size-discretized batch grinding equation using single parameter instead of dealing with two parameters which may not be independent of each other.

Analytical force and dynamic models for material removal processes such as end and face milling do not account for material and process related uncertainties such as tool wear, tool breakage and material inhomogeneity. Optimization of material removal processes thus requires not only optimal process planning using analytical models but also on-line monitoring of the process so that adjustments, if needed, can be initiated to maximize the productivity or to avoid damaging expensive parts. In this thesis, a Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) sensor based process monitoring method that is independent of the cutting conditions and workpiece material is developed for measuring the cutting forces and/or torque in milling. The research includes the development of methods and hardware for wireless acquisition of time-varying strain signals from PVDF sensor-instrumented milling tools rotating at high speeds and transformation of the strains into the measurand of interest using quantitative physics-based models of the measurement system. Very good agreement between the measurements from the low cost PVDF sensors and the current industry standard, piezoelectric dynamometer, has been achieved. Three PVDF sensor rosettes are proposed for measuring various strain components of interest and are shown to outperform their metal foil strain gauge counterparts with significantly higher sensitivity and signal to noise ratio. In addition, a computationally efficient algorithm for milling chatter recognition that can adapt to different cutting conditions and workpiece geometry variations based on the measured cutting forces/torque signals is proposed and evaluated. A novel complex exponential model based chatter frequency estimation algorithm is also developed and validated. The chatter detection algorithm can detect chatter before chatter marks appear on the workpiece and the chatter frequency estimation algorithm is shown to capture the chatter frequency with the same accuracy as the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). The computational cost of the chatter detection algorithm increases linearly with data size and the chatter frequency estimation algorithm, with properly chosen parameters, is shown to perform 10 times faster than the FFT. Both the cutting forces/torque measurement methodology and the chatter detection algorithm have great potential for shop floor application. The cutting forces/torque measurement system can be integrated with adaptive feedback controllers for process optimization and can also be extended to the measurement of other physical phenomena.

A theory of the sub-ambient fluid pressure phenomenon observed during the wet sliding of a disk on a polymeric pad is presented. Two-dimensional fluid pressure mapping using membrane pressure sensors reveals a large, asymmetrical sub-ambient pressure region occupying about 70 percent of the disk-pad contact area. At the same time, a small positive pressure region exists near the trailing edge of the disk. This phenomenon is believed to be present during chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) and can contribute to the contact pressure, affecting the material removal rate and removal uniformity. Depending on the load and pad speed, the real contact pressure can be more than 2 times the nominal contact pressure due to the applied load. Tilt measurements of the disk carried out by a capacitive sensing technique indicate that the disk is tilted towards the leading edge and pad center when the pad is rotating. In addition, wafer bow is found to be less than 2 m and wafer tilt with respect to the wafer carrier is 5 to 7 m in the CMP configuration. A two-dimensional mixed-lubrication model based on the Reynolds equation is developed and solved using a finite differencing scheme. The pad is modeled as two layers: a top asperity layer described by the Greenwood and Williamson equation, and the bulk pad as linearly elastic. The orientation of the disk is determined by balancing the fluid and solid forces acting on it and solving using a modified Newtons method. It is found that the tilt of the disk and the pad topography play important roles in the distribution of fluid pressure through affecting the film thickness distribution. For a pad with severe topography, minimum and maximum fluid pressures of -90 kPa and +51 kPa respectively are detected. The model is able to recreate the experimental pressure maps. A material removal rate model based on mechanical abrasion and statistics has also been developed. Comparisons of model predictions and silicon oxide polishing results show agreement.

Mechanical grinding process is the most popular way to fabricate the fiber micro lenses, although there are some other methods, such as chemical etching, laser machining and focused ion beam micro-cutting. Mechanical grinding has its uniqueness in grinding Conical-Wedge-Shaped Fiber Endface, fiber endface with polygon-cone-shape, and fiber endface with double-variable curvatures. The double-variable curvatures fiber endface polisher, designed and manufactured by Mechanism Design Lab of NSYSU, is employed in this study. The normal force of the fiber endface is derived firstly and then the experimental parameters and data are substituted into the material removal rate (M.R.R.) formula to obtain M.R.R. and the Preston¡¦s constant K. The process parameters of the feed rate and polishing time on the fabrication of the fiber endface are analyzed. The polisher is calibrated and adjusted to improve the precision of the optical-fiber endface. A fiber endface with double-variable curvature is successfully fabricated in a single grinding process by properly controlling the fiber rotation angle, inclining angle, and the distant between the endface and the grinding film simultaneously. The grinding process developed in this study can be applied for fabricating optical fiber lenses in fiber optics communication as well as different types of micro probes, and micro spectroscopefors in other applications.

Grinding of clinker is the last and most energy-consuming stage of the cement manufacturing process, drawing on average 40% of the total energy required to produce one ton of cement. During this stage, the clinker particles are substantially reduced in size to generate a certain level of fineness as it has a direct influence on such performance characteristics of the final product as rate of hydration, water demand, strength development, and other. The grinding objectives tying together the energy and fineness requirements were formulated based on a review of the state of the art of clinker grinding and numerical simulation employing the Markov chain theory. The literature survey revealed that not only the specific surface of the final product, but also the shape of its particle size distribution (PSD) is responsible for the cement performance characteristics. While it is feasible to engineer the desired PSD in the laboratory, the process-specific recommendations on how to generate the desired PSD in the industrial mill are not available. Based on a population balance principle and stochastic representation of the particle movement within the grinding system, the Markov chain model for the circuit consisting of a tube ball mill and a high efficiency separator was introduced through the matrices of grinding and classification. The grinding matrix was calculated using the selection and breakage functions, whereas the classification matrix was defined from the Tromp curve of the separator. The results of field experiments carried out at a pilot cement plant were used to identify the model's parameters. The retrospective process data pertaining to the operation of the pilot grinding circuit was employed to validate the model and define the process constraints. Through numerical simulation, the relationships between the controlled (fresh feed rate; separator cut size) and observed (fineness characteristics of cement; production rate; specific energy consumption) parameters of the circuit were defined. The analysis of the simulation results allowed formulation of the process control procedures with the objectives of decreasing the specific energy consumption of the mill, maintaining the targeted specific surface area of the final product, and governing the shape of its PSD.