Si la formation des grandes structures de l'Univers est plutot bien comprise, celle des galaxies ainsi que leur évolution l'est beaucoup moins. On s'intéresse en particulier aux mécanismes de mise en route de la formation stellaire dans les galaxies. L'étude des galaxies lumineuses en infrarouge constitue une des approches pour répondre à ces questions. Le travail effectué au cours de cette thèse repose essentiellement sur l'analyse de données infrarouges provenant du satellite Spitzer.<br /><br />La première partie de ce travail porte sur l'étude de la<br />distribution spatiale des galaxies infrarouges. Nous avons introduit une nouvelle méthode pour mesurer la fonction de corrélation angulaire des galaxies. Cette méthode a été validée sur des simulations et des données. Nous avons également montré comment les effets de corrélation spatiale pouvaient biaiser les mesures de flux moyen réalisées par la méthode d'empilement. De plus, la<br />fonction de corrélation angulaire mesurée pour les sources sélectionnées à 3.6 microns et 24 microns montre un excès de corrélation aux petites échelles angulaires. Ceci pourrait être lié à l'interaction des galaxies à l'intérieur d'un meme halo de matière noire qui favoriserait alors les mécanismes d'émission infrarouge.<br /><br />Dans un second temps, nous nous sommes attachés à mieux caractériser le fond diffus infrarouge (CIB) en déterminant la contribution à ce fond des sources détectées à 3.6 microns et en la comparant à celle des sources sélectionnées à 24 microns. Nous avons également estimé la contribution au CIB à 3.6 et 24 microns des sources sélectionnées à 3.6 microns en fonction de leur taux de formation stellaire spécifique.<br /><br />Enfin, nous avons étudié les distributions spectrales d'énergie d'un grand nombre de galaxies situées entre z=0 et z=2 : nous avons montré d'une part que les luminosités à 8 et 24 microns étaient de bons traceurs de la luminosité totale infrarouge (et donc du taux de formation stellaire) et, d'autre part, que les propriétés de ces galaxies ne semblaient pas évoluer entre entre z=0 et z=1. Nous avons également étudié de façon détaillée le spectre infrarouge de 17 galaxies sélectionnées à 70 microns et nous avons montré que la luminosité relative des PAHs diminuait lorsque le champ de rayonnement<br />augmentait.

L’objectif de ma thèse porte sur les interactions entre les noyaux actifs de galaxies et le milieu interstellaire des galaxies. En particulier, je mets l’accent sur les deux mécanismes possibles responsables de la production des vents par les trous noirs : les jets et les vents produits par le rayonnement de ces trous noirs. Les simulations hydrodynamiques de haute résolution des galaxies comprenant la rétroac- tion d’un jet ont montré que l’activité des noyaux actifs peut conduire à une pression exces- sive sur les régions denses de formation stellaire dans les galaxies, et donc à augmenter la formation d’étoiles, conduisant à un effet positif de rétroaction. Je montre que ces noyaux actifs induits par pression régulée et formation d’étoiles peuvent aussi être une explica- tion possible des taux de formation stellaire élevés observés dans l’Univers à haut décalage spectral. De plus, j’ai également étudié en détails comment le rayonnement émis à partir d’un disque d’accrétion autour du trou noir agit efficacement avec le milieu interstellaire et entraîne un fort vent galactique, en simulant la propagation des photons à partir des équations hydrodynamiques du rayonnement. Les simulations montrent que la grande luminosité d’un quasar est en effet capable de conduire des vents à grande échelle et à grande vitesse. Le rayonnement infrarouge est nécessaire pour transérer efficacement le gaz par multi-diffusion sur la poussière dans les nuages denses. Le nombre typique de multi-diffusion diminue rapidement quand le nuage central de gaz central se dilate et se rompt, ce qui permet au rayonnement de s’échapper à travers les canaux à faible densité. / Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) are known to reside in the centres of most large galaxies. The masses of these SMBHs are known to correlate with large-scale properties of the host galaxy suggesting that the growth of the BHs and large-scale structures are tightly linked. A natural explanation for the observed correlation is to invoke a self-regulated mechanism involving feedback from Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN). The focus of this thesis is on the interactions between AGN outflows and the ISM and how the feedback impacts the host galaxy. In particular, it focuses on the two possible mechanism of outflows, namely, outflows related to AGN jets and outflows produced by AGN radiation. High resolution, galaxy scale hydrodynamical simulations of jet-driven feedback have shown that AGN activity can over-pressurise dense star-formation regions of galaxies and thus enhance star formation, leading to a positive feedback effect. I propose, that such AGN-induced pressure-regulated star formation may also be a possible explanation of the high star formation rates recently found in the high-redshift Universe. In order to study in more detail the effects of over-pressurisation of the galaxy, I have performed a large set of isolated disc simulations with varying gas-richness in the galaxy. I found that even moderate levels of over-pressurisation of the galaxy boosts the global star formation rate by an order of magnitude. Additionally, stable discs turn unstable which leads to significant fragmentation of the gas content of the galaxy, similar to what is observed in high-redshift galaxies. The observed increase in the star formation rate of the galaxy is in line with theoretical predictions. I have also studied in detail how radiation emitted from a thin accretion disc surrounding the BH effectively couples to the surrounding ISM and drives a large scale wind. Quasar activity is typically triggered by extreme episodes of gas accretion onto the SMBH, in particular in high-redshift galaxies. The photons emitted by a quasar eventually couple to the gas and drive large scale winds. In most hydrodynamical simulations, quasar feedback is approximated as a local thermal energy deposit within a few resolution elements, where the efficiency of the coupling between radiation of the gas is represented by a single parameter tuned to match global observations. In reality, this parameter conceals various physical processes that are not yet fully un- derstood as they rely on a number of assumptions about, for instance, the absorption of photons, mean free paths, optical depths, and shielding. To study the coupling between the photons and the gas I simulated the photon propagation using radiation-hydrodynamical equations (RHD), which describe the emission, absorption and propagation of photons with the gas and dust. Such an approach is critical for a better understanding of the coupling between the radiation and gas and how hydrodynamical sub-grid models can be improved in light of these results...

Galaxies are the major building blocks of the universe, but we are still learning about fundamental aspects of their formation. In particular, we would like to understand how galaxies acquire their stars, and where and when these stars were born. In this thesis, we investigate these questions by the study of the dynamical and chemical abundances of galaxies in the local universe. Extending previous works in the field, we have developed a Bayesian framework to obtain luminosity-weighted ages, metallicities and alpha-element abundances. In our initial study, we have surveyed six galaxy groups to understand how this particular environment may be related to morphological transformations. We have obtained a sample of 59 group members with a wide range of dynamical masses, which have been used to demonstrate that the mass-metallicity relation extends to low-mass galaxies. We then proceeded to the study of NGC 3311, a cD galaxy at the center of the Hydra I cluster. We have confirmed previous observations of the velocity dispersion profile of the system, which indicates the presence of a large photometric substructure which illustrates the ongoing accretion of the diffuse stellar halo. We performed a study of the stellar populations of the system, which indicated that stars in the diffuse stellar halo have been accreted from past merger events of large elliptical galaxies, whereas the central region of the galaxy is most probably the remnant of a rapid dissipative collapse. Moreover, the metallicity of the stars in the photometric substructure suggest an ongoing disruption of dwarf galaxies possibly related to the presence of an infalling group. These results are consistent with the two-phase model for the mass assembly of galaxies, in which massive ellipticals are formed by dissipative processes at high-redshifts, but continue to build-up their halos by the continuous accretion of satellite systems. / Galáxias são os principais blocos de construção do universo, mas ainda estamos aprendendo sobre aspectos fundamentais da sua formação. Em particular, gostaríamos de entender como as galáxias adquirem suas estrelas, e onde e quando essas estrelas nasceram. Nesta tese, investigamos estas questões pelo estudo da dinâmica e das abundâncias químicas de galáxias no universo local. Estendendo trabalhos anteriores na área, desenvolvemos um método Bayesiano para a obtenção de idades, metalicidades e abundância de elementos alfa ponderados pela luminosidade. Em nosso estudo inicial, pesquisamos seis grupos de galáxias para compreender como esse ambiente em particular pode estar relacionado às transformações morfológicas. Obtivemos uma amostra de 59 membros de grupos com uma vasta gama de massas dinâmicas, que foram utilizados para demonstrar que a relação massa-metalicidade se estende para galáxias de baixa massa. Então, procedemos ao estudo de NGC 3311, uma galáxia cD no centro do aglomerado Hydra I. Confirmamos as observações anteriores do perfil de dispersão da velocidades do sistema, que indicam a presença de uma grande subestrutura fotométrica que ilustra a acreção atual de estrelas no halo estelar difuso. Foi realizado um estudo das populações estelares do sistema, que indica que as estrelas no halo estelar difuso foram obtidas em eventos passados de fusão de grandes galáxias elípticas, enquanto que a região central da galáxia é provavelmente o remanescente de uma rápido colapso dissipativo. Além disso, a metalicidade das estrelas na subestrutura fotométrica sugere a ruptura atual de galáxias anãs relacionadas com a presença de um grupo se movimentando em direção ao centro do aglomerado. Estes resultados são consistentes com o modelo de duas fases para a acumulação da massa de galáxias, no qual galáxias elípticas gigantes são formadas por processos dissipativos em altos redshifts, mas continuam a acrescentar estrelas em seus halos pelo deposição de sistemas satélite.

Cette these a pour objet d'une part l'analyse du releve profond FIRBACK effectue par l'INFRARED SPACE OBSERVATORY dans l'infrarouge lointain (λ=170 µm), qui a pour but d'etudier les galaxies contribuant au fond extragalactique infrarouge, et d'autre part la modelisation de l'evolution des galaxies dans le domaine spectral s'etendant de l'infrarouge moyen au submillimetrique. <br /><br />Le releve FIRBACK est constitue de 3 champs (deux boreaux et un austral) a haute latitude Galactique et de faible emission d'avant-plan, couvrant une surface totale de 3. 89 degre carres.<br /><br />J'expose tout d'abord les techniques de reduction, de traitement et d'etalonnage des donnees cosmologiques ISOPHOT. En particulier, je montre qu'en ayant determine le lobe de l'instrument, l'emission etendue est en accord entre PHOT et DIRBE. Les cartes finales sont construites, et le releve est limite par la confusion σc=45 mJy. <br /><br />Je presente ensuite les techniques d'extraction des sources et de simulation pour la photometrie, qui permettent de construire le catalogue final de 106 sources, de flux compris entre 180 mJy (4σc ) et 2.4 Jy. Le catalogue complementaire regroupe 90 sources de flux compris entre 135 et 200 mJy. Les comptages de galaxies presentent un fort exces par rapport aux modeles sans et avec evolution, et aux observations locales : ils ne sont compatibles qu'avec des scerarii de forte evolution. Les sources representent 4% du fond extragalactique a 170 µm. Les quelques identifications a d'autres longueurs d'onde (en particulier dans le domaine visible et submillimetrique) suggerent que les sources FIRBACK sont des galaxies tres lumineuses dont la majorite est locale, mais dont une fraction non negligeable se situe a des redshifts superieurs a 1.<br /> <br />Dans le but de comprendre la nature des sources FIRBACK et d'apporter <br />des contraintes sur l'evolution des galaxies infrarouges, j'ai developpe un modele phenomenologique d'evolution. En utilisant la fonction de luminosite locale observee et une famille de spectres de galaxies starburst, il est possible de contraindre l'evolution de la fonction de luminosite en ajustant toutes les donnees existantes : comptages profonds a 15, 170 et 850 µm et spectre du fond extragalactique. Je montre ainsi que l' evolution des galaxies dans le domaine couvrant l'infrarouge moyen au submillimetrique est dominee par une population de galaxies infrarouges ultra-lumineuses, dont le pic se situe a L=2.0*10^11 Luminosites solaires. Les distributions en redshift sont en accord avec les observations. Le modele permet de faire des predictions pour les futures observations spatiales de SIRTF (Spitzer), Planck et FIRST (Herschel).

<p>Most of the matter in the Universe appears to be in some form which does not emit or absorb light. While evidence for the existence of this dark matter has accumulated over the last seventy years, its nature remains elusive. In this thesis, quasars and low surface brightness galaxies (LSBGs) are used to investigate the properties of the dark matter. </p><p>Quasars are extremely bright light sources which can be seen over vast distances. These cosmic beacons may be used to constrain dark matter in the form of low-mass, compact objects along the line of sight, as such objects are expected to induce brightness fluctuations in quasars through gravitational microlensing effects. Using a numerical microlensing model, we demonstrate that the uncertainty in the typical size of the optical continuum-emitting region in quasars represents the main obstacle in this procedure. We also show that, contrary to claims in the literature, microlensing fails to explain the observed long-term optical variability of quasars. Here, quasar distances are inferred from their redshifts, which are assumed to stem from the expansion of the Universe. Some astronomers do however defend the view that quasar redshifts could have a different origin. A number of potential methods for falsifying claims of such non-cosmological redshifts are proposed. </p><p>As the ratio of dark to luminous matter is known to be unusually high in LSBGs, these objects have become the prime targets for probing dark matter halos around galaxies. Here, we use spectral evolutionary models to constrain the properties of the stellar populations in a class of unusually blue LSBGs. Using rotation curve data obtained at the ESO Very Large Telescope, we also investigate the density profiles of their dark halos. We find our measurements to be inconsistent with the predictions of the currently favoured cold dark matter scenario.</p>

Most of the matter in the Universe appears to be in some form which does not emit or absorb light. While evidence for the existence of this dark matter has accumulated over the last seventy years, its nature remains elusive. In this thesis, quasars and low surface brightness galaxies (LSBGs) are used to investigate the properties of the dark matter. Quasars are extremely bright light sources which can be seen over vast distances. These cosmic beacons may be used to constrain dark matter in the form of low-mass, compact objects along the line of sight, as such objects are expected to induce brightness fluctuations in quasars through gravitational microlensing effects. Using a numerical microlensing model, we demonstrate that the uncertainty in the typical size of the optical continuum-emitting region in quasars represents the main obstacle in this procedure. We also show that, contrary to claims in the literature, microlensing fails to explain the observed long-term optical variability of quasars. Here, quasar distances are inferred from their redshifts, which are assumed to stem from the expansion of the Universe. Some astronomers do however defend the view that quasar redshifts could have a different origin. A number of potential methods for falsifying claims of such non-cosmological redshifts are proposed. As the ratio of dark to luminous matter is known to be unusually high in LSBGs, these objects have become the prime targets for probing dark matter halos around galaxies. Here, we use spectral evolutionary models to constrain the properties of the stellar populations in a class of unusually blue LSBGs. Using rotation curve data obtained at the ESO Very Large Telescope, we also investigate the density profiles of their dark halos. We find our measurements to be inconsistent with the predictions of the currently favoured cold dark matter scenario.

Supermassive black holes, black holes with masses <106 Msun, are found at the centers of all massive galaxies. These massive black holes grew from smaller seed black holes through accretion events. Accreting black holes are very bright in the radio through very hard X-ray spectral regimes. Due to the location of these accreting black holes at the centers of galaxies, they are referred to as active galactic nuclei (AGN). It is understood that AGN are an important phase of galaxy evolution; however, the role of AGN in massive galaxy formation is very poorly constrained. Here, the unique tool of multi-wavelength population synthesis modeling is used to study the average properties of AGN and their host galaxies with a focus on host galaxy star formation and the role of black hole growth in galaxy evolution. Knowledge of the AGN population from deep X-ray surveys is combined with theoretical AGN spectral energy distributions to predict various observables of the AGN population in wavelength regions from the far infrared to very hard X-rays. Comparison of the model predictions to observations constrains the model input parameters and allows for the determination of average properties of the AGN population. Particular attention is paid to a special class of AGN known as Compton thick AGN. These AGN are deeply embedded in gas and dust such that the column density obscuring the line of sight to the central engine of the AGN exceeds 1/σT ~ 10²⁴ cm⁻², where σT is the Thomson cross-section of the electron---a column density comparable to that of the human chest. Theoretical and simulational evidence suggest that these Compton thick AGN may be recently triggered, rapidly accreting AGN, making them of special interest to researchers. I found that Compton thick AGN are likely to contribute ~20% of the peak of the cosmic X-ray background (XRB) at ~30 keV and demonstrated that a significant portion of Compton thick AGN may be accreting very rapidly. Moreover, Compton thick AGN do not appear to follow the orientation based unified model of AGN. According to the unified model, AGN exhibit a range of obscuration levels due to a dusty 'torus' which, depending on the orientation of the torus to the observer's line of sight, may obscure the central engine of the AGN. Upon further investigation into the stellar populations of AGN host galaxies, it appears that the unified model holds in general at z < 1, but not at z > 1. I found that this is likely due to the dominant triggering mechanism of AGN switching from major mergers at z > 1.5 to secular processes by z ~ 1.

Galaxies are the major building blocks of the universe, but we are still learning about fundamental aspects of their formation. In particular, we would like to understand how galaxies acquire their stars, and where and when these stars were born. In this thesis, we investigate these questions by the study of the dynamical and chemical abundances of galaxies in the local universe. Extending previous works in the field, we have developed a Bayesian framework to obtain luminosity-weighted ages, metallicities and alpha-element abundances. In our initial study, we have surveyed six galaxy groups to understand how this particular environment may be related to morphological transformations. We have obtained a sample of 59 group members with a wide range of dynamical masses, which have been used to demonstrate that the mass-metallicity relation extends to low-mass galaxies. We then proceeded to the study of NGC 3311, a cD galaxy at the center of the Hydra I cluster. We have confirmed previous observations of the velocity dispersion profile of the system, which indicates the presence of a large photometric substructure which illustrates the ongoing accretion of the diffuse stellar halo. We performed a study of the stellar populations of the system, which indicated that stars in the diffuse stellar halo have been accreted from past merger events of large elliptical galaxies, whereas the central region of the galaxy is most probably the remnant of a rapid dissipative collapse. Moreover, the metallicity of the stars in the photometric substructure suggest an ongoing disruption of dwarf galaxies possibly related to the presence of an infalling group. These results are consistent with the two-phase model for the mass assembly of galaxies, in which massive ellipticals are formed by dissipative processes at high-redshifts, but continue to build-up their halos by the continuous accretion of satellite systems. / Galáxias são os principais blocos de construção do universo, mas ainda estamos aprendendo sobre aspectos fundamentais da sua formação. Em particular, gostaríamos de entender como as galáxias adquirem suas estrelas, e onde e quando essas estrelas nasceram. Nesta tese, investigamos estas questões pelo estudo da dinâmica e das abundâncias químicas de galáxias no universo local. Estendendo trabalhos anteriores na área, desenvolvemos um método Bayesiano para a obtenção de idades, metalicidades e abundância de elementos alfa ponderados pela luminosidade. Em nosso estudo inicial, pesquisamos seis grupos de galáxias para compreender como esse ambiente em particular pode estar relacionado às transformações morfológicas. Obtivemos uma amostra de 59 membros de grupos com uma vasta gama de massas dinâmicas, que foram utilizados para demonstrar que a relação massa-metalicidade se estende para galáxias de baixa massa. Então, procedemos ao estudo de NGC 3311, uma galáxia cD no centro do aglomerado Hydra I. Confirmamos as observações anteriores do perfil de dispersão da velocidades do sistema, que indicam a presença de uma grande subestrutura fotométrica que ilustra a acreção atual de estrelas no halo estelar difuso. Foi realizado um estudo das populações estelares do sistema, que indica que as estrelas no halo estelar difuso foram obtidas em eventos passados de fusão de grandes galáxias elípticas, enquanto que a região central da galáxia é provavelmente o remanescente de uma rápido colapso dissipativo. Além disso, a metalicidade das estrelas na subestrutura fotométrica sugere a ruptura atual de galáxias anãs relacionadas com a presença de um grupo se movimentando em direção ao centro do aglomerado. Estes resultados são consistentes com o modelo de duas fases para a acumulação da massa de galáxias, no qual galáxias elípticas gigantes são formadas por processos dissipativos em altos redshifts, mas continuam a acrescentar estrelas em seus halos pelo deposição de sistemas satélite.

Nous avons effectué 14 simulations de collisions majeures de galaxies spirales riches en gaz. Ces simulations ont été réalisées grâce à GCD+, un algorithme qui inclue la gravité, l'hydrodynamique, la formation stellaire et un traitement détaillé de l'enrichissement en métaux. Nous avons analysé les propriétés cinématiques, structurelles et chimiques des étoiles formées avant, pendant et après la collision. Ces collisions forment une galaxie ayant un disque pouvant être divisé en deux composantes. Ces deux composantes peuvent correspondre au disque mince et au disque épais d'une galaxie, et leur profil de luminosité peut être ajustées par une loi exponentielle. Les étoiles formées avant et pendant la collision ont une longueur d'échelle plus grande que les étoiles formées après la collision par 20% en moyenne. Du point de vue de la cinématique, les étoiles vieilles ont des dispersions en vitesse plus élevées et sont en retard sur les étoiles jeunes pour ce qui est de la vitesse de rotation. Le sursaut de formation d'étoiles associé à la collision permet d'enrichir rapidement le gaz en différent métaux. Les explosions de supernovae de type II qui ont lieu rapidement après la collision, étant donné la courte durée de vie des étoiles qui les produisent, enrichissent le milieu intergalactique en éléments a. Les supernovae de type la, ayant une distribution plus étendue dans le temps, permettent l'enrichissement en fer des deux populations associées aux composantes du disque, ce qui permet d'obtenir une population stellaire vieille ayant un rapport [a/Fe] supérieur à celui des étoiles jeunes et ce, même à des métallicités relativement élevées ([Fe/H] = —0.5). Ce résultat pourrait expliquer le rapport [a/Fe] élevé que l'on retrouve chez les étoiles du disque épais de la Voie lactée. / We employ GCD+, a N-body, smoothed particle hydrodynamic simulation, including star formation and a detailed treatment of chemical enrichment, to follow 14 gas-rich mergers that resuit almost ail in a galaxy with disk morphology. We trace the kinematic, structural, and chemical properties of stars formed before, during, and after the merger. We show that such merger produces two exponential disk components, with the older, hotter component having a scale length 20% larger than the later forming, cold disk. On a kinematical point of view the old stellar population clearly lags the rotation velocity of the young disk and hâve a higher rotational velocity dispersion. Rapid star formation during the mergers quickly enriches the protogalactic gas réservoir, resulting in high metallicities of the forming stars. Thèse stars form from gas largely polluted by Type II supernovae, which form rapidly in the merger-induced starburst. After the mergers, a thin disk forms from gas that has had time to be polluted by type la supernovae. This fact lead to an old stellar population with a higher [a/Fe] ratio than the young population at quite high metalicity ([Fe/H] = —0.5). We examine the proposai that increased star formation during gas-rich mergers may explain the high a-to-iron abundance ratios that exist in the relatively high-metallicity, thick-disk component of the Milky way.

Nous avons utilisé un algorithme P³M afin de simuler la formation de galaxies dans une boîte cosmologique de (15 Mpc)³ dans un univers ΛCDM d'un décalage spectral de 24 à 2. Nous avons ensuite simulé des vents galactiques anisotropes et suivi l'effet de rétroaction de ces vents sur l'évolution des galaxies naines simulées. Les vents sont modélisés comme étant bipolaires et les angles d'ouverture étudiés sont de α=60°, 90°, 120°, 150° et 180°. Ces vents modélisés ont tendance à se propager dans une direction perpendiculaire à la structure à grande échelle (filament, crêpe) hébergeant la galaxie. Nous incluons l'effet de la suppression de galaxies par la photoionisation à partir d'un décalage spectral z=6 dans cinq de nos simulations et l'ignorons dans les cinq autres afin de comparer cette dernière série de résultats avec des travaux antérieurs. Nous incluons aussi les interactions entre les halos (accrétion, fusion et fission) pour modéliser l'apparition de sursauts d'étoiles produisant des supernovae. Les vents anisotropes sont les plus susceptibles d'enrichir les régions de faibles densités. De plus, ils ont moins de chances de se superposer, ce qui augmente la fraction de milieu intergalactique enrichie en métaux. L'anisotropie grandissante des vents diminue aussi la probabilité qu'un halo soit frappé et dépossédé de son gaz, empêchant ainsi la formation d'une galaxie. Lorsque l'on diminue l'angle d'ouverture des vents de α=180° (un vent isotrope) à un angle α=60°, le nombre de galaxies créées double. Cela a pour effet de produire le double de vents. Ces vents étant plus anisotropes, ils se superposent moins, ce qui a pour résultat que la fraction de volume enrichie passe de 8%, dans le cas de vents isotropes, à 28% pour des vents ayant un angle d'ouverture de 60°. L'anisotropie des vents augmente l'enrichissement des régions de toutes densités, ce qui est dû en partie au fait que les vents de hautes anisotropies sont plus nombreux. Lorsque nous ne tenons pas compte de cet effet, nous remarquons que l'anisotropie des vents crée une augmentation de l'enrichissement pour des densités allant jusqu'à 10p̄, où p̄ est la densité moyenne. Nous attribuons cet effet à l'évolution dynamique de nos simulations. Le gaz situé dans les régions de faible densité est fortement enrichi par les vents anisotropes, mais une partie de ce gaz est ensuite accrétée par les structures à grandes échelles. Les régions de hautes densités sont plus efficacement enrichies que les régions de faibles densités (~80% comparé à ~20%), mais celles-ci sont privilégiées (un maximum d'enrichissement par volume à 0.3p̄). L'effet de photoionisation diminue grandement le nombre de galaxies de faibles masses formées à z<3, ce qui produit une baisse de la fraction de volume enrichie après z=3 puisque l'effet d'accrétion l'emporte sur le nombre de vents créés, particulièrement dans les régions de faibles densités.