Thesis (PhD (Food Sc))--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The wildlife industry in Namibia has shown tremendous growth over the past decades and is currently the only extensive production system in Namibia that is expanding. Harvesting game for the purpose of meat production is a viable option since there is a worldwide demand for healthy and high quality proteins. The main objective of the dissertation was to investigate selected parameters required to develop a sustainable Namibian game meat industry. The major species suitable for commercial harvesting operations are springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis – Zimmerman, 1780), gemsbok (Oryx gazella – Linnaeus, 1785), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros – Pallas, 1766), mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae – Linnaeus, 1758) and red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama – Pallas, 1766). Eland (Tragelaphus oryx – Pallas, 1766) could be considered as a suitable species, although the numbers of animals that can be harvested during an operation are limited. This study demonstrated that gender influenced live weight of springbok, kudu and red hartebeest. Gender also influenced carcass weights for springbok, gemsbok, kudu and red hartebeest, but not for eland, while dressing percentage did not differ between gender for springbok, gemsbok, kudu and red hartebeest. Although there were some statistical differences in the chemical composition of the various muscles from the different species (Mm. biceps femoris, infraspinatus, longissimus dorsi, semimembranosus, semitendinosus and supraspinatus), it is doubtful whether consumers would be able to distinguish between these. Discriminant analysis could not differentiate among the different muscle groups for springbok and gemsbok. A differentiation was, however, revealed among the various muscles for red hartebeest. During the investigation on the influence of season and gender on the carcass yields and meat quality characteristics of kudu and red hartebeest, dressing percentage was affected by season, but not by gender. Muscle colour differed significantly between seasons. Results from this study showed that male eland contained more saturated fatty acids than females, but no gender differences were observed for polyunsaturated fatty acids. Hides of gemsbok, kudu and red hartebeest contributed 6 – 7% of live weight, while the skin of springbok contributed 4 – 5% of live weight. Comparisons of offal items among species showed significant differences for all offal items, except for intestines. Retail cuts showed significant species difference for rump, topside, silverside and sinews. No significant species differences were observed for thick flank and bolo. Significant gender differences were observed for silverside. No interactions between species and gender were found for the different retail cuts from gemsbok and kudu. Microbiological counts of game meat, chilled for 6 weeks and frozen for 12 months, respectively, were found to be within acceptable limits as prescribed by the South African retail market. Differences in physico-chemical and microbiological properties were observed among salami from different game species. The springbok salami was found to be microbiologically unstable. The main characteristics observed while tasting the salami from springbok, gemsbok, kudu and zebra were a distinctive smoky, salty, pepper and salami flavour combined with a smoky, salami aroma. Game flavour did not feature as strong during the sensory analyses. Sustainable utilization of game for commercial meat production has the potential to increase earnings to beneficiaries in the wildlife sector. Results from this study contributed knowledge which can be utilized to develop the Namibian game meat industry. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die wildsbedryf in Namibië het die afgelope dekades buitengewone groei getoon en is huidiglik die enigste ekstensiewe produksie-sisteem wat in Namibië uitbrei. Die oes van wild is ʼn voordelige opsie, aangesien daar wêreldwyd ʼn aanvraag is na gesonde en hoë kwaliteit proteïene. Die hoofdoelwit van hierdie dissertasie was die loods van ʼn ondersoek na geselekteerde aspekte wat benodig word om die Namibiese wildsvleisbedryf te ontwikkel. Die belangrikste spesies geïdentifiseer as geskik vir kommersiële oes, is springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis – Zimmerman, 1780), gemsbok (Oryx gazella – Linnaeus, 1785), koedoe (Tragelaphus strepsiceros – Pallas, 1766), berg sebra (Equus zebra hartmannae – Linnaeus, 1758) en rooihartbees (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama – Pallas, 1766). Eland (Tragelaphus oryx – Pallas, 1766) is ook ʼn geskikte spesies, maar die hoeveelhede wat op een slag geoes kan word, is beperk. Hierdie studie het gedemonstreer dat geslag ʼn invloed op die lewendige gewig van springbok, koedoe en rooihartbees het. Geslag het ook ʼn invloed gehad op karkasgewigte van springbok, gemsbok, koedoe en rooihartbees, maar geen invloed op die karkasgewig van eland nie, terwyl uitslagpersentasie geensins geslagsverskille getoon het vir springbok, gemsbok, koedoe of rooihartbees nie. Nieteenstaande statistiese verskille in die chemiese samestelling van die verskillende spiere van die onderskeie spesies (Mm. biceps femoris, infraspinatus, longissimus dorsi, semimembranosus, semitendinosus en supraspinatus), is dit te betwyfel of verbruikers ʼn onderskeid sal kan tref tussen die spiere. Diskriminant-analise kon nie verskille uitwys tussen die verskillende groepe spiere van springbok en gemsbok nie. Verskille was egter te bespeur tussen verskillende spiere van die rooihartbees. Gedurende hierdie ondersoek is die invloed van seisoen en geslag op die karkasopbrengs en vleiskwaliteit van koedoe en rooihartbees ondersoek. Uitslagpersentasie is beïnvloed deur seisoen, maar nie deur geslag nie. Kleur het betekenisvol verskil tussen seisoene. Resultate van die studie het getoon dat elandbulle meer versadigde vetsure het as koeie, maar dat geen verskille vir geslag gevind is vir poli-onversadigde vetsure nie. Gemsbok-, koedoe - en rooihartbeesvelle het 6 – 7% bygedra tot die lewendige gewig, terwyl die vel van die springbok 4 – 5% bygedra het. Vergelykings van afvalopbrengs tussen spesies het verskille uitgewys ten opsigte van al die items, behalwe die ingewande. Kleinhandelsnitte het betekenisvolle verskille getoon vir die kruis, binneboud, dy en senings. Geen betekenisvolle spesies verskille is opgemerk vir die diklies en bolo nie. Die dy het betekenisvolle verskille tussen geslagte getoon. Geen interaksie tussen spesies en geslag is opgemerk vir die verskillende kleinhandelsnitte van gemsbok en koedoe nie. Mikrobiologiese tellings vir wildsvleis, verkoel vir 6 weke en gevries vir 12 maande, onderskeidelik, het voldoen aan die aanvaarbare vlakke soos voorgeskryf deur die Suid-Afrikaanse kleinhandelsmark. Verskille in fisiese, chemiese en mikrobiologiese kwaliteite was opgemerk vir die salami van die verskillende spesies. Springbok salami was mikrobiologies onstabiel. Die belangrikste karaktereienskappe bemerk tydens die proe van die salami vervaardig van springbok-, gemsbok- , koedoe - en sebravleis, was ʼn oorheersende rook-, sout-, peper- en salamigeur, gekombineer met ʼn rook- en salami aroma. Wildsvleisgeur het nie sterk na vore gekom tydens die sensoriese analise, nie. Die volhoubare gebruik van wild vir kommersiële vleisproduksie het die potensiaal om inkomste vir belangegroepe in die wildsektor te verhoog. Resultate van hierdie studie het kennis uitgebrei wat gebruik kan word om die wildsvleisindustrie in Namibië te ontwikkel.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The production and especially the export of game meat from Southern African are steadily increasing and with this growth, it is inevitable that more emphasis is being placed on the quality of game meat. Research regarding the effect of different cropping methods on ante-mortem stress, and as a result, on meat quality in wild ungulates, is lacking and thus the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of some of the commonly used cropping methods on the meat quality of red hartebeest, impala, gemsbok and kudu. Antemortem stress was measured using serum cortisol levels (nmol/L), a subjective stress score allocated to each animal as well as the rate and extent of pH decline in the M. longissimus dorsi. Special emphasis was also placed on the meat quality parameters drip loss, cooking loss, colour and Warner-Bratzler shear force (kg/1.27 cm diameter). The effect of day and night cropping on the meat quality of red hartebeest, gemsbok and kudu was investigated. An exponential decay model, y = a + b-ct, was fitted to the pH data of the gemsbok and red hartebeest, and pHu measurements taken at 24 hours post-mortem. Only pHu readings taken at 48 hours post-mortem were analysed in the kudu. Day-cropped kudu had a lower mean pHu (5.40 ± 0.030) than nightcropped kudu (5.48 ± 0.041). No differences in pHu were found for the red hartebeest although night-cropped gemsbok had a higher mean pHu (5.54 ± 0.013) than day-cropped gemsbok (5.49 ± 0.014). None of the constants of the exponential decay model differed for the red hartebeest although day-cropped gemsbok produced a lower constant than night-cropped gemsbok. Mean stress scores and cortisol levels were found to be higher in day-cropped animals for both the gemsbok and kudu while only cortisol levels were higher in die day-cropped red hartebeest. Stress score and cortisol levels were found to be correlated in all three species (red hartebeest: r = 0.51; gemsbok: r = 0.786; kudu: r = 0.823). No treatment differences in drip loss or cooking loss were found for either the red hartebeest or gemsbok, while day-cropped kudu had a higher mean drip loss % (2.76 ± 0.261%) than night-cropped kudu (1.36 ± 0.361%). Night-cropped gemsbok and kudu produced higher mean shear force values (gemsbok = 4.19 ± 0.138; kudu = 4.06 ± 0.237 kg/1.27 cm diameter) than day-cropped animals (gemsbok = 3.57 ± 0.154; kudu = 3.45 ± 0.171 kg/1.27 cm diameter). Colour differences indicated that day-cropped gemsbok and kudu produced lighter meat than night-cropped animals. The results indicate no difference in the effects of day and night cropping in red hartebeest although day-cropped gemsbok and kudu experienced more ante-mortem stress than their night-cropped counterparts. The effect of conventional hunting during the day and night cropping on impala meat was also investigated. No differences were found in pH45 or pHu (taken at 45 minutes and 24 hours post-mortem respectively) although the exponential decay model, y = a + b-ct, fitted to the pH data revealed differences in all the constants (day: a = 5.424 ± 0.039, b = 1.405 ± 0.034, c = -0.385 ± 0.022; night: a = 5.295 ± 0.033, b = 1.556 ± 0.029, c = -0.184 ± 0.019). No differences were found for drip loss, cooking loss or shear force although day-cropped animals produced higher a* and chroma values. The results indicate that, although conventional hunting caused a faster and more severe post-mortem pH decline, both treatments produced meat of similar quality. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die produksie en veral die uitvoer van wildsvleis vanuit Suidelike Afrika is gedurig aan die toeneem en met hierdie groei is dit onvermydelik dat meer klem op die gehalte van wildsvleis gelê word. Daar is ’n tekort aan navorsing oor die uitwerking van verskillende oesmetodes op ante mortem stres en gevolglik ook vleisgehalte van verskillende wildspesies en dus was die doel van dié studie om die uitwerking van sommige van die gewildste oesmetodes op die vleisgehalte van rooihartebees, gemsbok, koedoe en rooibok te ondersoek. Ante mortem stres is gemeet deur die gebruik van serum-kortisolvlakke (nmol/L), ʼn subjektiewe strestelling wat aan elke dier gegee is asook die tempo en vlak van pH-daling in die M. longissimus dorsi. Spesiale klem is gelê op die vleisgehalteparameters drupverlies, kookverlies, kleur en Warner-Bratzlerskeurwaarde (kg/1.27 cm deursnee). Die uitwerking van dag- en nag-oes op die vleisgehalte van rooihartebees, gemsbok en koedoe is ondersoek. ’n Eksponensiële vervalkurwe, y = a + b-ct, is aan die pH-data van die gemsbokke en rooihartebeeste gepas en pHu-metings is op 24 uur ná dood geneem. Net pHu-lesings op 48 uur ná dood in die koedoe is geanaliseer. Koedoes wat in die dag geoes is, het ’n laer pHu (5.40 ± 0.030) gehad as koedoes wat in die nag geoes is (5.48 ± 0.041). Daar was geen verskille in pHu vir die rooihartebeeste nie, alhoewel die gemsbokke wat in die nag geoes is, ’n hoër pHu (5.54 ± 0.013) gehad het as gemsbokke wat in die dag geoes is (5.49 ± 0.014) . Geeneen van die konstantes van die eksponensiële vervalkurwe het verskil in die geval van rooihartebeeste nie terwyl gemsbokke wat in die dag geoes is ʼn hoër konstante a en ʼn laer konstante c getoon het as gemsbokke wat in die nag geoes is. Gemiddelde strestellings en kortisolvlakke was hoër in die geval van gemsbokke en koedoes wat in die dag geoes is terwyl net die kortisolvlakke hoër was in die rooihartebeeste wat in die dag geoes is. Daar is ook bevind dat die strestelling en kortisolvlakke gekorreleer was in al drie spesies (hartebees: r = 0.51; gemsbok: r = 0.786; koedoe: r = 0.823). Geen verskille in drupverlies of kookverlies is aangetref vir die rooihartebeeste of gemsbokke nie, alhoewel koedoes wat in die dag geoes is ʼn hoër gemiddelde drupverlies % (2.76 ± 0.261%) getoon het in vergelyking met koedoes wat in die nag geoes is (1.36 ± 0.361%). Gemsbokke en koedoes wat in die nag geoes is, het ’n hoër gemiddelde skeurwaarde gehad (gemsbokke = 4.19 ± 0.138; koedoes = 4.06 ± 0.237 kg/1.27 cm deursnee) as diere wat in die dag geoes is (gemsbokke = 3.57 ± 0.154; koedoes = 3.45 ± 0.171 kg/1.27 cm deursnee). Kleurverskille het aangedui dat gemsbokke en koedoes wat in die dag geoes is, ligter gekleurde vleis geproduseer het as diere wat in die nag geoes is. Die resultate dui aan dat daar by rooihartebeeste geen verskil is tussen die uitwerking van dag-oes en nag-oes nie, maar dat die dag-oes van gemsbokke en koedoes meer voordoodse stres veroorsaak het as nag-oes. Die uitwerking van konvensionele jag gedurende die dag- en nag-oes op die vleisgehalte van rooibokke is ook ondersoek. Geen verskille is aangetref in pH45 of pHu (geneem op 45 minute en 24 uur ná dood onderskeidelik) nie, alhoewel die eksponensiële vervalkurwe, y = a + b-ct, wat gepas is aan die pH-data verskille getoon het in al die konstantes (dag: a = 5.424 ± 0.039, b = 1.405 ± 0.034, c = -0.385 ± 0.022; nag: a = 5.295 ± 0.033, b = 1.556 ± 0.029, c = -0.184 ± 0.019). Geen verskille is aangetref ten opsigte van drupverlies, kookverlies of skeurkrag nie. Diere volgens die konvensionele maniere geoes het wel hoër a*-en chroma-waardes getoon. Die resultate dui daarop dat, alhoewel konvensionele jag ʼn vinniger en meer ekstreme pH-daling veroorsaak het, albei behandelinge tot dieselfde vleisgehalte gelei het.

Möglichkeiten der Beeinflussung der mikrobiologischen Wildfleischqualität auf Bewegungsjagden Institut für Lebensmittelhygiene der Veterinärmediziniscen Fakultät der Universität Leipzig Eingereicht im November 2015 57 Seiten, 12 Abbildungen, 5 Tabellen, 59 Literaturangaben Einleitung Im Zuge neuer Jagdstrategien erhält das Konzept der großräumigen Bewegungsjagden immer größere Bedeutung beim Erzielen der Gesamtstrecke und damit auch des Gesamtwildfleischaufkommens. Durch wildverarbeitende Betriebe findet das Produkt Wildfleisch über Supermärkte,Feinkostläden aber auch Fleischertheken den Weg zum Endverbraucher. Ein großer Anteil des für diese Wildhändler wichtigen Weihnachtsgeschäfts wird in der Zeit von Oktober bis Dezember über den Aufkauf von Bewegungsjagdstrecken generiert. Das Ziel dieser Untersuchung ist es, mit Hilfe der in der Schlachtindustrie angewendeten Analysemethode der Tierkörperbeprobung mit Stanzproben vier unterschiedliche Regime zur Behandlung von auf Bewegungsjagden erlegten Wild in Hinsicht auf die mikrobiologische Qualität zu untersuchen. Des Weiteren wird die mikrobielle Belastung der verschiedenen Wildarten gegenüberstellend mit den mikrobiologischen Prozesshygienekriterien der VO (EG) Nr. 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) für Schlachtkörper von Nutztieren verglichen. Material und Methoden Die Gewinnung der Proben erfolgte im Zeitraum von Oktober 2011 bis Januar 2012 in einem schleswig-holsteinischen Wildverarbeitungsbetrieb. Insgesamt wurden 217 Schlachttierkörper der Wildarten Reh-, Schwarz-, Dam- und Rotwild in vier verschiedenen Gruppen beprobt. Für Gruppe 1 erfolgte das Ausweiden im Wald durch den Jäger selbst. Die Wildtierkörper wurden revierüblich zum Streckenplatz transportiert, dort in liegender Weise präsentiert und anschließend revierüblich zum Wildverarbeitungsbetrieb transportiert. Gruppe 2 unterscheidet sich von Gruppe 1 durch ein zentrales Ausweiden direkt am Streckenplatz. Für Gruppe 3 wurden neben dem zentralen Ausweiden die Präsentation der Strecke in hängender Form und ein gekühlter Transport zum Wildverarbeitungsbetrieb gewählt. Für Gruppe 4 entfiel die Präsentation komplett und die Wildtierkörper wurden direkt nach dem zentralen Ausweiden in einem Kühltransporter verladen und anschließend abtransportiert. Nach der Enthäutung wurden insgesamt vier Proben mit jeweils 5 cm2 Fläche im Hals-, Brust-, Flanken- und Keulenbereich eines jeden Wildtierschlachtkörpers entnommen. Es erfolgte auf direktem Weg ein gekühlter Transport zum Institut für Lebensmittelhygiene der veterininärmedizinischen Fakultät Leipzig. Für die mikrobiologische Analyse der Gesamtkeimzahl (GKZ), Enterobakterien (EBAC), Enterokokken (EKOK) und Staphylokokken wurde für die ersten 30 der 217 Proben das Spatelverfahren angewendet. Die restlichen 187 Proben wurden aufgrund der stark zunehmenden Probenzahlen mit Tropfplattenverfahrens analysiert. Für Listeria monocytogenes wurden spezielle ALOA-Platten und die entsprechenden biochemischen Nachweismethoden für einen qualitativen Nachweis verwendet. Der qualitative Nachweis von Salmonella spp. wurde mit Voranreicherung und folgenden biochemischen Reaktionen geführt. Ergebnisse Im Vergleich zu den festgelegten Werten der VO (EG) Nr. 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) für schlachtbare Haustiere sind die ermittelten Werte dieser Untersuchung positiv zu bewerten. So liegen für Enterobakterien die Werte von Schwarz- (1,41 log KbE/cm2) und Damwild (1,43 log KbE/cm2) jeweils unter dem unteren Grenzwert für Haustiere und können somit als befriedigend eingestuft werden. Mit Werten zwischen dem unteren und oberen Grenzwert fallen Reh- (1,99 log KbE/cm2) und Rotwild (2,33 log KbE/cm2) in den akzeptablen Bereich. Ein ähnliches Bild zeigt sich bei der Gesamtkeimzahl. Schwarz- (3,51 log KbE/cm2) und Damwild (3,32 log KbE/cm2) liegen erneut im befriedigenden, Reh- (3,79 log KbE/cm2) und Rotwild (3,85 log KbE/cm2) im akzeptablen Bereich. In keiner der analysierten Wildfleischproben konnten Salmonella spp. oder Listeria monocytogenes nachgewiesen werden. Für Koagulase-positive Staphylokokken ergibt sich eine Nachweisrate von 3,2 % mit einem Mittelwert von 2,44 KbE/cm2. Die über alle Proben gemittelten Werte ergeben 3,57 log KbE/cm2 für die GKZ, 1,60 log KbE/cm2 für EBAC und 0,88 log KbE/cm2 für die EKOK. Für Gruppe 1 wurden für die GKZ Mittelwerte von 3,46 KbE/cm2, für EBAC 1,34 KBE/cm2 und für EKOK 0,87 KbE/cm2 festgestellt. Gruppe 2 weist Werte von 3,78 KbE/cm2 (GKZ), 1,94 KbE/cm2 (EBAC) und 1,18 KbE/cm2 (EKOK) auf. Für Gruppe 3 wurden Mittelwerte von 3,48 KbE/cm2 (GKZ), 1,53 KbE/cm2 (EBAC) und 0,67 KbE/cm2 (EKOK) ermittelt. Gruppe 4 weist Werte von 3,60 KbE/cm2 (GKZ), 1,54 KbE/cm2 (EBAC) und 0,86 KbE/cm2 (EKOK) aus. Es konnten statistisch keine Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen gesichert werden. Schlussfolgerungen Sauber erlegtes Wildfleisch erfüllt die mikrobiologischen Prozesshygienekriterien konventionell geschlachteter Nutztiere. In der vorliegenden Untersuchung konnten keine hochpathogenen Keime wie Salmonella spp. oder Listeria monocytogenes nachgewiesen werden. Die nicht vorhandenen statistischen Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen deuten darauf hin, dass eine gute allgemeine Hygienepraxis für die Wildfleischqualität entscheidend ist. / Possibilities to influence the microbiological game meat quality on driven hunts Institute of Food Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig Submitted in November 2015 57 pages, 12 figures, 5 tables, 59 references Introduction With regard to new hunting strategies, the concept of large-scale driven hunts is increasingly gaining importance for the annual hunting bag and subsequently the total amount of game meat. Via game meat processing enterprises, game meat finds its way along the food chain to the consumer. As game meat is a popular dish in Germany during the Christmas season, a high share of the total annual amount of game is shot within driven hunts from October to December. The goal of this study is to examine the microbiological quality of game meat from hoofed game bagged at driven hunts. After killing, the animals were processed in four different ways with regard to transport, handling, and evisceration. The sampling of all carcasses was performed in a local meat processing enterprise on four different sampling sites using a sterile metal punch. Qualitative and quantitative microbiological analysis of the samples was performed in order to (i) detect possible differences of the microbiological quality between the four different groups, (ii) compare the microbiological quality of game and slaughtered farm animals, and (iii) develop best practice guidelines for the hygienic production and handling of game meat. Material and methods All sampling took place in a game handling establishment in the federal state of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, from October 2011 until January 2012. Altogether, 217 carcasses of roe, fallow, and red deer as well as wild boar were sampled in 4 different groups. In group 1 the evisceration of the animal was performed by the hunter. The eviscerated carcasses were hauled to the presentation area in a customary way and presented on the ground due to the hunting tradition. After presentation, the carcasses were transported to the game handling establishment in a customary way. In variation from this, the animals of group 2 were eviscerated together at the presentation area. The animals of group 3 were presented hanging on racks instead of lying and a refrigerated transport to the game handling establishment was used. In group 4 the presentation of the animals after evisceration was skipped and the carcasses were transported to the game handling establishment in a refrigerated vehicle. After skinning, four samples were taken in the area of the neck, chest, flank and joint of each carcass with sterile instruments. The chilled samples were directly brought to the institute of food hygiene of the veterinary medicine faculty of the University of Leipzig. In total, 217 samples were examined with quantitative microbiological methods for mesophilic aerobic bacteria, enterobacteriaceae, enterococci and staphylococci. In addition, qualitative analysis on Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. was performed on all samples. Results Group 1 shows a mean amount of mesophilic aerobic bacteria of 3.46 cfu/cm2, a mean of 1.34 cfu/cm2 for enterobacteriaceae and a mean of 0.87 cfu/cm2 for enterococci. Group 2 shows a mean amount of mesophilic aerobic bacteria of 3.78 cfu/cm2, a mean of 1.94 cfu/cm2 for enterobacteriaceae and a mean of 1.18 cfu/cm2 for enterococci. For group 3 mean values of 3.48 cfu/cm2 (total plate count), 1.53 cfu/cm2 (enterobacteriaceae), and 0.67 cfu/cm2 (enterococci) were found. For Group 4 mean values of 3.60 cfu/cm2 (total plate count), 1.54 cfu/cm2 (enterobacteriaceae) and 0.86 cfu/cm2 (enterococci) were determined. No statistically significant differences between the groups could be confirmed. Compared to the process hygiene criteria for the carcasses of farm animals laid down in Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs, the results of this study have to be rated in a positive way. The average values for enterobacteriaceae for wild boar (1.41 log cfu/cm2) and fallow deer (1.43 log cfu/cm2) are below the lower limit for farm animals and can be rated as satisfying. The counts for enterobacteriaceae in roe deer (1,99 log cfu/cm2) and the red deer (2,33 log cfu/cm2) are still acceptable, in this respect. The average total plate count values in samples from wild boar (3,51 log cfu/cm2) and fallow deer (3,32 log cfu/cm2) is also satisfying. Roe (3,79 log cfu/cm2) and red deer (3,85 log cfu/cm2) can be deemed acceptable. Coagulase-positive staphylococci were found in 7 out of 217 samples or 3.2 % (mean 2,44 cfu/cm2). Also Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes were not detected in the samples. Conclusion Accurately hunted and processed game meat has a microbial burden that is comparable to farm animals with regard to the process hygiene criteria for the carcasses of farm animals laid down in Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. In this study, no pathogens like Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes were found in the game meat samples. The absence of a statistically significant difference between the groups indicates that not a specific set up during bagging and processing but rather the accurate placement of the shot as well as the strict compliance with the Guides to Good Hygiene Practice ensure a high microbiological quality of game meat as well as the absence of pathogenic microorganisms.

The study explores South African respondents’ attitudes toward game meat and finds the differences between the attitudes of consumer and non-consumer respondents of game meat toward the following attributes of game meat: sensory characteristics; health benefits; game meat production ethics; animal welfare; safety for human consumption; availability; price; promotion; and preparation. This quantitative study determined the attitudes of 1096 consumers and 310 non-consumers of game meat with an online survey using questionnaires. Recruitment was done through social media and e-mail forwarding. The differences in attitudes between consumer and non-consumer respondents were determined using Fishbein’s attitude-toward-the-object model. Based on attitudes toward individual attributes, respondents classified some product attributes as important in their decision to consume, or not to consume, game meat. Respondents indicated that the availability, sensory characteristics, game meat production ethics and health benefits are considered to be important in their consumption of game meat. To market game meat purposefully, the industry should focus on these attributes. / Life and Consumer Sciences / MCS (Life and Consumer Sciences)

Inledning: Många organisationer och projekt har under de senaste åren fokuserat på att främja en ökad konsumtion och kunskap om viltkött. Den enkla frågan ”hur smakar vilt?” blir i detta sammanhang mycket betydelsefull. Hur kan smaken vilt beskrivas med ord?Litteraturgenomgång: Idag står viltkött för 4 % av den totala köttkonsumtionen men runt 59 % vill äta mer viltkött. Flera nya Svenska undersökningar har visat att smakbeskrivningar av produkter kan underlätta köpbeslutet för konsumenten. Det har också visats att våra sinnen påverkar våra köpbeslut och att ju mer vi fångar en konsuments sinnen ju mer kan köpbeslutet påverkas.Syfte: Syftet med den här undersökningen var att ta fram en sensorisk beskrivning av viltsmak. Studiens mål var också att få svar på vilka ord som kunde beskriva viltsmaken hos älg-, hjort- och vildsvinskött och hur tydlig viltsmaken var hos de tre viltarterna.Metod: Med kött från tre utvalda villebråd skapades en smakprofil för viltkött genom ett sensoriskt beskrivande test. En profilpanel fick provsmaka ytterfilén av hjort, älg och vildsvin. Undersökningen gjordes vid ett tillfälle och var uppdelat i tre moment. Först fick panelen göra en individuell bedömning av viltköttet genom att fylla i en enkät. Sedan diskuterades enkätens resultat i en gruppdiskussion och i sista momentet bestämdes viltsmakens intensitet hos de tre viltarterna i form av ett intensitetstest.Resultat: Resultatet visar att vilt har en syrlig smak, en karaktäristisk blod- och metallsmak samt en mustig smak av skog och jord. Även om studien främst var inriktad på smaken och inte doft, valdes svaveldoft att finnas med i beskrivningen för viltsmak eftersom den återkom hos samtliga viltarter. Viltsmaken var betydligt intensivare hos älgen och hjorten medan den hos vildsvinet visades vara mycket mild. Älgen hade den mest utpräglade viltsmaken.Slutsats: En slutsats kan dras med resultatet som stöd att viltsmak kan beskrivas vara syrligt, ha en karaktäristisk blod- och metallsmak samt en mustig smak av skog och jord. Slutsatsen kan också dras att älgen och hjorten har en mycket kraftig medan vildsvinet inte har samma tydligare viltsmak. Genom litteraturstudier drogs vidare slutsatsen att sensorisk beskrivning av viltkött kan förenkla konsumentens beslut, skapa en vassare marknadsföring samt öka upplevelsen för både den vanliga konsumenten och inom för konsumenter inom turisnäringen. Med hjälp av beskrivande smakord kan också samtal och uttryck för vad maten smakar öka gemenskapen under en måltid. / Introduction: Many organizations and projects have during the past years focused on to promote an increased consumption and knowledge for game meat. The simple question “How does game taste?” becomes in this context very essential. How can the taste of game be described with words?Literature review: Today game meat represents 4 % of the total meat consumption but approximately 59 % would like to eat more game meat. Several new Swedish studies have shown that taste descriptions of products can ease the purchase decision for the consumer. It has also been shown that our senses are influencing on our purchase decision. All the more we can catch the consumers senses all the more the purchase decision can be influenced.Purpose: The purpose of this study was to develop a sensory description for the gamy flavor. The aim with the study was also to answer, which words could describe the taste of game of deer, elk and boar and how clear the taste of game was in these three species.Method: With meat from three selected games a taste profile for game meat was created through a sensory descriptive test. A profile panel tasted the sirloin from deer, elk and boar. The study was performed at one occasion and divided into three separate stages. At the first stage the panel made an individual judgment by filling in a survey. In the subsequent stage the result from the survey was discussed in groups and in the final stage the taste intensity of the three different games was determined by an intensity test.Results: The results shows that game has a sour taste, a characteristic blood and metallic taste and a rich taste of wood and earth. Although the study focused on taste rather than scents, the scent of sulfur was decided to be a part of the gamy flavor as it appeared at all species. The elk and deer had a strong taste of game meanwhile the boar showed a more mild taste. The elk had the most pronounced gamy flavor.Conclusion: One conclusion that was made with the results as support is that the taste of game can be described as sour, a characteristic blood and metallic taste and a rich taste of wood and earth. Another conclusion that can be made is that the elk and the deer has a much more stronger taste of game compared to the boar which doesn’t have the same clear taste of game. By literature studies a conclusion could be made that a sensory description of game meat can ease the consumers purchase decision, create a more cutting edge marketing, and enhance the experience both for the ordinary consumer and the consumer in the tourist business. Using descriptive words for the taste of the food can also increase the communion during a meal.

Möglichkeiten der Beeinflussung der mikrobiologischen Wildfleischqualität auf Bewegungsjagden Institut für Lebensmittelhygiene der Veterinärmediziniscen Fakultät der Universität Leipzig Eingereicht im November 2015 57 Seiten, 12 Abbildungen, 5 Tabellen, 59 Literaturangaben Einleitung Im Zuge neuer Jagdstrategien erhält das Konzept der großräumigen Bewegungsjagden immer größere Bedeutung beim Erzielen der Gesamtstrecke und damit auch des Gesamtwildfleischaufkommens. Durch wildverarbeitende Betriebe findet das Produkt Wildfleisch über Supermärkte,Feinkostläden aber auch Fleischertheken den Weg zum Endverbraucher. Ein großer Anteil des für diese Wildhändler wichtigen Weihnachtsgeschäfts wird in der Zeit von Oktober bis Dezember über den Aufkauf von Bewegungsjagdstrecken generiert. Das Ziel dieser Untersuchung ist es, mit Hilfe der in der Schlachtindustrie angewendeten Analysemethode der Tierkörperbeprobung mit Stanzproben vier unterschiedliche Regime zur Behandlung von auf Bewegungsjagden erlegten Wild in Hinsicht auf die mikrobiologische Qualität zu untersuchen. Des Weiteren wird die mikrobielle Belastung der verschiedenen Wildarten gegenüberstellend mit den mikrobiologischen Prozesshygienekriterien der VO (EG) Nr. 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) für Schlachtkörper von Nutztieren verglichen. Material und Methoden Die Gewinnung der Proben erfolgte im Zeitraum von Oktober 2011 bis Januar 2012 in einem schleswig-holsteinischen Wildverarbeitungsbetrieb. Insgesamt wurden 217 Schlachttierkörper der Wildarten Reh-, Schwarz-, Dam- und Rotwild in vier verschiedenen Gruppen beprobt. Für Gruppe 1 erfolgte das Ausweiden im Wald durch den Jäger selbst. Die Wildtierkörper wurden revierüblich zum Streckenplatz transportiert, dort in liegender Weise präsentiert und anschließend revierüblich zum Wildverarbeitungsbetrieb transportiert. Gruppe 2 unterscheidet sich von Gruppe 1 durch ein zentrales Ausweiden direkt am Streckenplatz. Für Gruppe 3 wurden neben dem zentralen Ausweiden die Präsentation der Strecke in hängender Form und ein gekühlter Transport zum Wildverarbeitungsbetrieb gewählt. Für Gruppe 4 entfiel die Präsentation komplett und die Wildtierkörper wurden direkt nach dem zentralen Ausweiden in einem Kühltransporter verladen und anschließend abtransportiert. Nach der Enthäutung wurden insgesamt vier Proben mit jeweils 5 cm2 Fläche im Hals-, Brust-, Flanken- und Keulenbereich eines jeden Wildtierschlachtkörpers entnommen. Es erfolgte auf direktem Weg ein gekühlter Transport zum Institut für Lebensmittelhygiene der veterininärmedizinischen Fakultät Leipzig. Für die mikrobiologische Analyse der Gesamtkeimzahl (GKZ), Enterobakterien (EBAC), Enterokokken (EKOK) und Staphylokokken wurde für die ersten 30 der 217 Proben das Spatelverfahren angewendet. Die restlichen 187 Proben wurden aufgrund der stark zunehmenden Probenzahlen mit Tropfplattenverfahrens analysiert. Für Listeria monocytogenes wurden spezielle ALOA-Platten und die entsprechenden biochemischen Nachweismethoden für einen qualitativen Nachweis verwendet. Der qualitative Nachweis von Salmonella spp. wurde mit Voranreicherung und folgenden biochemischen Reaktionen geführt. Ergebnisse Im Vergleich zu den festgelegten Werten der VO (EG) Nr. 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) für schlachtbare Haustiere sind die ermittelten Werte dieser Untersuchung positiv zu bewerten. So liegen für Enterobakterien die Werte von Schwarz- (1,41 log KbE/cm2) und Damwild (1,43 log KbE/cm2) jeweils unter dem unteren Grenzwert für Haustiere und können somit als befriedigend eingestuft werden. Mit Werten zwischen dem unteren und oberen Grenzwert fallen Reh- (1,99 log KbE/cm2) und Rotwild (2,33 log KbE/cm2) in den akzeptablen Bereich. Ein ähnliches Bild zeigt sich bei der Gesamtkeimzahl. Schwarz- (3,51 log KbE/cm2) und Damwild (3,32 log KbE/cm2) liegen erneut im befriedigenden, Reh- (3,79 log KbE/cm2) und Rotwild (3,85 log KbE/cm2) im akzeptablen Bereich. In keiner der analysierten Wildfleischproben konnten Salmonella spp. oder Listeria monocytogenes nachgewiesen werden. Für Koagulase-positive Staphylokokken ergibt sich eine Nachweisrate von 3,2 % mit einem Mittelwert von 2,44 KbE/cm2. Die über alle Proben gemittelten Werte ergeben 3,57 log KbE/cm2 für die GKZ, 1,60 log KbE/cm2 für EBAC und 0,88 log KbE/cm2 für die EKOK. Für Gruppe 1 wurden für die GKZ Mittelwerte von 3,46 KbE/cm2, für EBAC 1,34 KBE/cm2 und für EKOK 0,87 KbE/cm2 festgestellt. Gruppe 2 weist Werte von 3,78 KbE/cm2 (GKZ), 1,94 KbE/cm2 (EBAC) und 1,18 KbE/cm2 (EKOK) auf. Für Gruppe 3 wurden Mittelwerte von 3,48 KbE/cm2 (GKZ), 1,53 KbE/cm2 (EBAC) und 0,67 KbE/cm2 (EKOK) ermittelt. Gruppe 4 weist Werte von 3,60 KbE/cm2 (GKZ), 1,54 KbE/cm2 (EBAC) und 0,86 KbE/cm2 (EKOK) aus. Es konnten statistisch keine Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen gesichert werden. Schlussfolgerungen Sauber erlegtes Wildfleisch erfüllt die mikrobiologischen Prozesshygienekriterien konventionell geschlachteter Nutztiere. In der vorliegenden Untersuchung konnten keine hochpathogenen Keime wie Salmonella spp. oder Listeria monocytogenes nachgewiesen werden. Die nicht vorhandenen statistischen Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen deuten darauf hin, dass eine gute allgemeine Hygienepraxis für die Wildfleischqualität entscheidend ist. / Possibilities to influence the microbiological game meat quality on driven hunts Institute of Food Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig Submitted in November 2015 57 pages, 12 figures, 5 tables, 59 references Introduction With regard to new hunting strategies, the concept of large-scale driven hunts is increasingly gaining importance for the annual hunting bag and subsequently the total amount of game meat. Via game meat processing enterprises, game meat finds its way along the food chain to the consumer. As game meat is a popular dish in Germany during the Christmas season, a high share of the total annual amount of game is shot within driven hunts from October to December. The goal of this study is to examine the microbiological quality of game meat from hoofed game bagged at driven hunts. After killing, the animals were processed in four different ways with regard to transport, handling, and evisceration. The sampling of all carcasses was performed in a local meat processing enterprise on four different sampling sites using a sterile metal punch. Qualitative and quantitative microbiological analysis of the samples was performed in order to (i) detect possible differences of the microbiological quality between the four different groups, (ii) compare the microbiological quality of game and slaughtered farm animals, and (iii) develop best practice guidelines for the hygienic production and handling of game meat. Material and methods All sampling took place in a game handling establishment in the federal state of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, from October 2011 until January 2012. Altogether, 217 carcasses of roe, fallow, and red deer as well as wild boar were sampled in 4 different groups. In group 1 the evisceration of the animal was performed by the hunter. The eviscerated carcasses were hauled to the presentation area in a customary way and presented on the ground due to the hunting tradition. After presentation, the carcasses were transported to the game handling establishment in a customary way. In variation from this, the animals of group 2 were eviscerated together at the presentation area. The animals of group 3 were presented hanging on racks instead of lying and a refrigerated transport to the game handling establishment was used. In group 4 the presentation of the animals after evisceration was skipped and the carcasses were transported to the game handling establishment in a refrigerated vehicle. After skinning, four samples were taken in the area of the neck, chest, flank and joint of each carcass with sterile instruments. The chilled samples were directly brought to the institute of food hygiene of the veterinary medicine faculty of the University of Leipzig. In total, 217 samples were examined with quantitative microbiological methods for mesophilic aerobic bacteria, enterobacteriaceae, enterococci and staphylococci. In addition, qualitative analysis on Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. was performed on all samples. Results Group 1 shows a mean amount of mesophilic aerobic bacteria of 3.46 cfu/cm2, a mean of 1.34 cfu/cm2 for enterobacteriaceae and a mean of 0.87 cfu/cm2 for enterococci. Group 2 shows a mean amount of mesophilic aerobic bacteria of 3.78 cfu/cm2, a mean of 1.94 cfu/cm2 for enterobacteriaceae and a mean of 1.18 cfu/cm2 for enterococci. For group 3 mean values of 3.48 cfu/cm2 (total plate count), 1.53 cfu/cm2 (enterobacteriaceae), and 0.67 cfu/cm2 (enterococci) were found. For Group 4 mean values of 3.60 cfu/cm2 (total plate count), 1.54 cfu/cm2 (enterobacteriaceae) and 0.86 cfu/cm2 (enterococci) were determined. No statistically significant differences between the groups could be confirmed. Compared to the process hygiene criteria for the carcasses of farm animals laid down in Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs, the results of this study have to be rated in a positive way. The average values for enterobacteriaceae for wild boar (1.41 log cfu/cm2) and fallow deer (1.43 log cfu/cm2) are below the lower limit for farm animals and can be rated as satisfying. The counts for enterobacteriaceae in roe deer (1,99 log cfu/cm2) and the red deer (2,33 log cfu/cm2) are still acceptable, in this respect. The average total plate count values in samples from wild boar (3,51 log cfu/cm2) and fallow deer (3,32 log cfu/cm2) is also satisfying. Roe (3,79 log cfu/cm2) and red deer (3,85 log cfu/cm2) can be deemed acceptable. Coagulase-positive staphylococci were found in 7 out of 217 samples or 3.2 % (mean 2,44 cfu/cm2). Also Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes were not detected in the samples. Conclusion Accurately hunted and processed game meat has a microbial burden that is comparable to farm animals with regard to the process hygiene criteria for the carcasses of farm animals laid down in Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 (ANON. 2005) on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. In this study, no pathogens like Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes were found in the game meat samples. The absence of a statistically significant difference between the groups indicates that not a specific set up during bagging and processing but rather the accurate placement of the shot as well as the strict compliance with the Guides to Good Hygiene Practice ensure a high microbiological quality of game meat as well as the absence of pathogenic microorganisms.

The demand for the control of safe food, from consumers the world over, has revolutionized the manner in which wild game meat harvesting occurs. In developed countries, food quality, food and human safety with quality controlling systems embracing environmental carbon footprint issues are constantly improving, for international harmonization at each level of production “from stable to table”, “farm to fork”, “field to yield” as well as from “cradle to grave”. Food industries globally have adopted the in Hazard Analysis Critical control Point (HACCP) system. This is a risk assessment process using Hygiene Assessment Systems (HAS) as a mitigating strategy for risk communication through training. It is also a holistic system that is compatible with international trends designed not only for food safety and quality, but it also embraces other aspects of farming such as animal welfare, environmental management and Occupational Safety and Health. Global marketing for international trade demands quality assurance from trading partners thereby promoting economic growth for developing countries. The watch dog bodies such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO) prohibit trading for non-compliance, therefore trade barriers are in place for uncertified food of animal origin, EU regulations are stringent requirements that need compliance and so too the OIE regulations for disease control, while the Codex Alimentarius Commission maintains trade harmonization. In South Africa Hygiene Assessment Systems (HAS) is a National Hygiene management strategy implemented at abattoirs, that promotes and facilitates quality and hygiene and is reflective of South African quality abroad. It is prescribed under the section, “Essential National Standards” in the Meat Safety Act, 2000, (Act 40 of 2000). This Act covers red meat and includes both domestic animals and game. The Veterinary Procedural Notices (VPN’s) are used for export of game and give far more detailed guidelines than the legislation for game meat sold and consumed locally in South Africa. The objective of the Hygiene Assessment System (HAS) is to create a national awareness of quality to better improve the quality of life of all South Africans, whilst at the same time it is used as an auditing tool for Veterinary Public Health to effectively compare essential standards within the nine provinces. Currently this programme is referred to as the National Abattoir Rating Scheme (NARS), which is only applicable to the high and low throughput Red Meat and Poultry abattoirs in South Africa and not to the Game or Rural abattoirs, thereby further compounding the duality of food standards with food safety being compromised. This study has been undertaken because there are inadequate risk control measures such as introduction of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) guidelines on primary and secondary meat inspection, specifically on game for local consumption, not only within South Africa, but in the international arena as well. A revision of the HAS document and audit will also be needed to meet with the local (not just export) criteria for wild game harvesting, to enable food safety, thus enabling food security in the remote non - agricultural areas in KwaZulu -Natal. Venison is the meat of today because of health priorities that have arisen over the last ten years. It is low in trans - fatty acids and is regarded internationally as a healthy product produced organically in a free range situation. South Africa has a large potential export market for venison to the European Union because the demand, for venison, exceeds supply in Europe. However, the European Union’s “safe food regulation” that was introduced between 2005 and 2007 with an implementation date of 2008 (Regulation1021/2008) has made it imperative that the HACCP principle is applied to any food or food product of animal origin imported into the European Union or its member states. Also, HACCP specifies that a multidisciplinary team of experts is selected. This then lends itself to a participatory approach to risk assessment as wide consultation is required. This participatory approach was used, including expert opinion surveys and focus group discussions with stakeholders and role-players in the game industry such as commercial hunters, state veterinary services and game ranch owners. Such participants may have better insight into existing conditions than external experts with recognised educational qualifications, usually used in the HACCP team. From this and the relevant Veterinary Procedural Notices for game harvesting, a HACCP process flow and critical control points were derived for the primary phase of meat inspection, including slaughter, primary meat inspection and loading for transport to the abattoir. This was modified during a phase or trial harvesting and then implemented during the harvest of 1758 impala carcasses which were subsequently exported. In addition, environmental risks were considered and a risk mitigation strategy designed, to reduce any possible environmental impacts. In northern Kwazulu Natal, game ranches and conservation areas are in close proximity to the rural poor where food is scarce and comes at a premium price. These game farms harvest seasonally for either the local or export market, hence there is abundance of game offal and by-products available, yet it is at present left in the field or taken to the vulture restaurants (in line with the VPN). Participatory risk analysis was thus also used to investigate the feasibility of using edible offal from impala (Aepyceros melampus) as a source of renewable protein, to address food security issues in impoverished communities in the study area, the districts of uPongola and Jozini, in northern KwaZulu Natal. Structured interviews on the cultural acceptability of impala offal were held with 162 randomly sampled adult respondents in veterinary districts associated with dip tanks. A two stage cluster design was used where the state veterinary areas were stage one and the dip tanks (with proportional random sampling of community members) were the second stage. Offal is a popular food in South Africa in different cultures, called “ithumbu” in IsiZulu, “ boti” by the Indian group, “afval” in Afrikaans and “tripe” in English. Generally demand outstrips supply of offal at red meat abattoirs in South Africa. It was found that there was no significant difference between those who would eat impala offal and those who would eat the offal of sheep. It was concluded that it is feasible to use inspected game offal from impala as a protein source in much the same way as red meat offal is used and that the current practice of leaving the offal for predators was likely, if it continues, to cause imbalances in the predator/ prey ratio on game farms. It is recommended that the VPN for game be amended to encompass inspected offal being allowed into the formal food chain, in line with the standard operating procedure developed during this study. Also that current fragmentation of legislation and the implementation thereof is revisited for effective control for harmonisation of food safety standards for game meat within South Africa. / Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Paraclinical Sciences / unrestricted

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, 2005. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.