The world economy loses an estimated $3.5 trillion annually due to fraud. A weakened economy leads to additional hardships for individuals, families, and organizations. General strain theory (GST) posits that certain strains lead to negative emotional responses, and the result is delinquent behavior. The purpose of this research was to analyze the relationship between strain and occupational fraud through the theoretical framework of GST. The research questions addressed (a) occupational frauds as measured by strain levels of perpetrators, (b) the relationship between strain scores and the different occupational fraud types, and (c) the significance of the relationship between fraud motivation and each of the occupational fraud types. A quantitative, cross-sectional study using secondary data from the ACFE Report to the Nations on Occupational Fraud and Abuse database, was conducted to examine the relationship between strain, negative emotionality, and occupational fraud crimes. To examine this relationship, a sample of 2,910 cases were tested using nominal regression, logistic regression, and Pearson correlation. The results indicated that strain is significantly related to asset misappropriation and financial statement frauds. The results also showed that work-related motivation is significantly related to financial statement frauds. Scholars and practitioners should focus on agendas related to strain, work-related motivation, and financial statement frauds. Fewer fraud losses will positively impact society through increased employment opportunities, additional tax revenues for all levels of government, and increased cash flows for investors.

Depressive and anxiety symptoms are common mental health problems globally. Antisocial behaviors can occur in early age and develop into delinquency. The aim of the study was to investigate longitudinally, with a six-month follow-up the association between mental health problems (i.e. depressive and anxiety symptoms) and delinquency among Italian early adolescents and if this association differs for boys and girls. A quantitative method was used with secondary data. The sample consisted of 155 Italian 12 years old adolescents. A longitudinal design with two occasions of measurement was used, which allows to follow individuals over time. The cross-sectional results showed that depressive symptoms were positively associated with delinquency in the total sample. However, no association was showed between anxiety symptoms and delinquency at the baseline. In addition, longitudinal results showed that medium/high delinquent behavior after six-month follow-up can partly be explained by depressive symptoms at baseline, but not by anxiety symptoms in the total sample. The longitudinal results also showed that increased levels of depressive symptoms and anxiety symptoms among boys increased the probability of having medium/high delinquent behavior, but not among girls. In conclusion, mental health problems can to some extent explain delinquency, especially among boys.

The purpose of this dissertation is to extend General Strain Theory (GST) to examine prosocial, asocial, and antisocial behavior in response to bullying. In GST, Agnew (1992; 2001; 2013) asserted that negative emotions can lead to criminal or aggressive coping but there are a number of factors that increase or decrease the propensity to respond aggressively (Agnew, 1992; Richman & Leary, 2009). In this dissertation, I examine whether and how rejection (operationalized as bullying victimization) is associated with aggressive responding as opposed to prosocial (e.g., befriending others) or asocial (e.g., avoiding people and social events) responding. This dissertation consists of three studies testing theoretical variables of bullying victimization as well as behavioral responses to four types of bullying: physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Study 1 of this dissertation examines risk and protective factors for types of bullying victimization. Study 2 applies GST to test the effect of social support, or the availability of alternative relationships (i.e., having others to count on or turn to for social support), on responses to four types of bullying. Study 3 tests the effect of power dynamics on responses to physical and relational bullying. In conducting this research, I hope to: 1) integrate interdisciplinary bodies of literature to examine risk and protective factors of bullying victimization and behavioral responses to bullying and 2) improve understanding of how these experiences are affected by the power dynamics involved in bullying. Overall, the results of this dissertation suggest that types of negative emotions and behavioral outcomes vary by type of bullying victimization. Cyber bullying was found to have more negative consequences than any other form of bullying. Across all four forms of bullying, social support was found to be associated with an increased likelihood of youth engaging in prosocial behavior. Implicit power, or the perception that one’s bully has a high social standing at school, significantly influenced responses based on the type of bullying. However, even when controlling for power dynamics, social support was still associated with increased prosocial behavior in response to bullying victimization. Theory and policy implications are discussed.

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The purpose of this thesis is to examine the experiences of South African women prior to, during and after incarceration. The theoretical bases for this study include the general strain theory (GST), feminist pathways approach and Goffman’s “total institutions”. The study made use of a qualitative research design. In-depth interviews were conducted with a total of twenty female ex-prisoners, who were selected using snowball sampling, to obtain information about their experiences during the periods indicated. The findings of the study indicated that, in respect of the three periods mentioned, the participants cited their experiences during incarceration as the most prominent as they tended to dwell more on this phase of their lives than any other phase. This is, in fact, not surprising as their narratives portrayed their lives behind bars as having been traumatic with far-reaching consequences for their lives after their incarceration. The study found that some of the participants had histories of emotional and physical abuse before their offending behaviours. It emerged that consensual same-sex sexual relationships between females in South African prisons exist and that these relationships are, sometimes, accepted by the family members of the female inmates. The participants reported that coercive sexual relationships also take place in female prisons in South Africa. It was also reported that the conditions under which females are incarcerated are, for the most part, deplorable. It emerged that the female prisoners use a unique monetary system which is based mainly on the trade by barter system. In addition, the findings revealed that female inmates often experience daunting challenges upon their release from prison, including high rates of unemployment, stigma and discrimination, family breakdown and the psychological effects of imprisonment, all of which often compound the resolve of some of the participants to live crime-free lives. / Sociology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the experiences of South African women prior to, during and after incarceration. The theoretical bases for this study include the general strain theory (GST), feminist pathways approach and Goffman’s “total institutions”. The study made use of a qualitative research design. In-depth interviews were conducted with a total of twenty female ex-prisoners, who were selected using snowball sampling, to obtain information about their experiences during the periods indicated. The findings of the study indicated that, in respect of the three periods mentioned, the participants cited their experiences during incarceration as the most prominent as they tended to dwell more on this phase of their lives than any other phase. This is, in fact, not surprising as their narratives portrayed their lives behind bars as having been traumatic with far-reaching consequences for their lives after their incarceration. The study found that some of the participants had histories of emotional and physical abuse before their offending behaviours. It emerged that consensual same-sex sexual relationships between females in South African prisons exist and that these relationships are, sometimes, accepted by the family members of the female inmates. The participants reported that coercive sexual relationships also take place in female prisons in South Africa. It was also reported that the conditions under which females are incarcerated are, for the most part, deplorable. It emerged that the female prisoners use a unique monetary system which is based mainly on the trade by barter system. In addition, the findings revealed that female inmates often experience daunting challenges upon their release from prison, including high rates of unemployment, stigma and discrimination, family breakdown and the psychological effects of imprisonment, all of which often compound the resolve of some of the participants to live crime-free lives. / Sociology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)