Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) is one of the most important species of intensively reared fish in the Mediterranean region. Its short history of domestication, along with the need to develop markets, new products and efficiency in the production process, has resulted in an increased interest in the potential genetic improvement of this species. Little work has so far been directed at establishing the procedures for selective breeding in gilthead seabream at a commercial level, although genetic parameters calculated in other studies have indicated that there is a large potential for improvement in certain traits. Selective breeding of commercial gilthead seabream populations is constrained by aspects of the biology that complicate the production of genetic groups and the maintenance of same-age offspring populations. The aim of this thesis was to develop a protocol for the selective breeding of gilthead seabream, specifically to serve a commercial hatchery and on-growing unit in Cyprus, where the fieldwork was carried out. The hatchery broodstock was monitored over a three-year period to identify the rate of sex reversal in introduced fish and to quantify the sex ratio of the stock over time. The analysis of the egg production records was used to evaluate the success of photoperiod manipulation in each group. Size variation in the larval and juvenile stages is a common problem in the rearing of gilthead seabream, leading to cannibalism and labour-intensive sorting operations. Studies on larval populations, from first feeding through to metamorphosis, indicated the origin of size variation was the differences in early feeding ability. The size advantages could be maintained throughout the larval period. During the juvenile stage of the farm production system, a method to standardise the size sorting of populations by grading was developed in order to counter environmental effects of separating groups of fish. Using this method, grading would be suitable to form the first stage of a selection programme for growth rate. The potential gain of selection for growth rate during the on-growing stage was very high, using a simulated criterion and previous estimates of heritability. Other possible quality traits for selection were also examined and quantified in the hatchery populations. Existing and specifically developed microsatellite markers were used for the assignment of offspring to parents from mass spawning of the hatchery broodstock. The effective population size of single spawning events were found to be low and determined by a high variation in contribution to mass spawning. Contribution was found to be significantly linked to body size, which led to the formation of a replacement policy for the broodstock to maximise spawning performance. Survival of individual families through the larval period was also examined. Based on the results of the experimental work, a two-stage selection programme was designed, along with the presentation of specific procedures for each stage of the production system. This project makes recommendations on various strategies that can increase the effective population size within a selection programme and these are discussed as part of the genetic management of hatchery populations. Significant progress has also been made in the use of genetic markers in monitoring the rate of inbreeding and contribution of individual broodfish, which are considered essential in this species.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Zoology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2012

A ararinha-azul (Cyanopsitta spixii) é uma das aves mais ameaçadas do mundo e está extinta na natureza. Estudos estão sendo realizados para o manejo e conservação em cativeiro para futura reintrodução. Microssatélites são marcadores moleculares úteis para estimar parentesco entre indivíduos. Esse dado pode ser utilizado para minimizar os efeitos deletérios da endogamia e a perda de diversidade genética do plantel do programa de reprodução em cativeiro, recomendando pares reprodutivos. O presente estudo teve como objetivos identificar microssatélites polimórficos específicos para acessar o nível de diversidade genética da espécie e estimar o parentesco entre pares de aves para auxiliar o manejo genético da população. O genoma de um indivíduo foi parcialmente sequenciado na plataforma 454 GS FLX (Roche). Foram desenhados 25 pares de primers, sendo 20 para dinucleotídeos e cinco para tetranucleotídeos. Dezenove microssatélites puderam ser amplificados e foram testados quanto ao nível de polimorfismo em 12 indivíduos selecionados. Desses, 14 microssatélites foram polimórficos. Também foram usados dados de microssatélites heterólogos nas análises. Dois microssatélites apresentaram desvio do equilíbrio de Hardy-Wenberg e cinco microssatélites foram excluídos devido à presença de desequilíbrio de ligação. A probabilidade de exclusão de paternidade quando um parental é conhecido foi de 94,8% e a probabilidade de identidade foi de 0,00000793. A riqueza alélica média foi de 2,49 alelos por microssatélite, confirmando a baixa diversidade genética da espécie. Alguns alelos já foram perdidos no plantel atual em cativeiro. A população tem valor de índice de parentesco médio similar àquela de, no mínimo, primos de primeiro grau e alguns dos fundadores são muito aparentados. Alguns potenciais casais com baixo índice de parentesco r podem vir a ser importantes para o programa de reprodução em cativeiro. / Spix\'s macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) is one of the most endangered birds of the world and is extinct in the wild. Several coordinated studies are being conducted for its management and conservation in captivity for future reintroduction. Microsatellites are useful markers to estimate relatedness between individuals. This information can be used to minimize the deleterious effects of inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity of captive birds, recommending less closely related pairs for the breeding program. The present study aims to identify specific polymorphic microsatellites to assess the levels of genetic variability of the species and the genetic relatedness among birds for the genetic management of the population. The partial genome of an individual was sequenced on a 454 GS FLX (Roche) platform. Twenty-five pairs of primers were designed, being 20 for di- and five tetra-nucleotide microsatellites. Nineteen microsatellites were amplified and tested in 12 selected individuals. Fourteen microsatellites were polymorphic. Heterologous microsatellites were also used in the analyses. Two microsatellites were not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and five presented linkage disequilibrium. Exclusion paternity probability when one parental is known was 94.8% and identity probability was 0.00000793. Mean allele richness was 2.49 alleles per microsatellite, confirming the low genetic diversity of the species. The current captive population has lost some alleles. The mean relatedness among individuals was, at least, similar to the one between first cousins and some founders are very closely related. Based on the relatedness index, some unrelated potential couples can become important for the captive program.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Haliotis midae (commonly referred to as perlemoen) is the only one of five endemic species in South Africa that is commercially valued both locally and internationally. Unfortunately, natural perlemoen populations have become a dwindling resource due to commercial exploitation, poaching and the influx of natural threats, such as the West Coast rock lobster, Jasus lalandii. To preserve the natural diversity and sustainability of natural populations as well as commercial stocks, genetic management and improvement of perlemoen is critical. Genetic management requires the utilisation of molecular markers, which aid in the construction of linkage maps and the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with economically significant traits. This will allow improvement of commercial stock management in terms of broodstock selection as well as provide valuable insight into natural population dynamics. Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) were selected as the marker of choice due to their successful employment as molecular markers and their wide distribution and abundance within the genomes of various marine species. This study focuses on the characterisation of novel SNPs from transcript sequences generated by Next Generation Sequencing technology. Approximately 40% of the transcripts facilitated the isolation of 105 putative markers, indicating a SNP frequency of ~1% within the H. midae genome. A subset of 24 markers, in addition to 24 previously developed markers, was characterised using the Illumina GoldenGate genotyping assay with the VeraCode technology, a medium to high-throughput genotyping technology. This is the first reported medium- to highthroughput characterisation of SNPs in H. midae. The selected markers were used to determine the efficiency and overall success rate of the GoldenGate platform. Marker characterisation was completed in both natural and commercial populations to determine the utility of these markers for genetic diversity and population structure inference. An 85% genotyping success rate was achieved with the platform. Statistical analysis indicated that the markers developed in this study are suitable for applications including population genetic structure inference, genetic diversity estimation and possibly other downstream applications such as linkage mapping. These markers are considered to be invaluable for future work regarding the genetic management and conservation of H. midae. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Haliotis midae (ook bekend as perlemoen) is die enigste van vyf inheemse spesies in Suid-Afrika wat noemenswaardige kommersiële waarde toon plaaslik sowel as internasionaal. Ongelukkig het kommersiële uitbuiting, wildstropery en natuurlike bedreiging (bv. die Weskus kreef Jasus lalandii), wilde perlemoen populasies noemenswaardig verminder. Dus, om natuurlike diversiteit en die voortbestaan van beide wilde en kommersiële populasies te beskerm, is genetiese bestuur en verbetering absoluut noodsaaklik. Genetiese bestuur vereis die gebruik van molekulêre merkers as ’n hulpmiddel in die opstellingvan koppelingskaarte, en die identifisering van die relevante kwantitatiewe eienskap loki (QTL) tipies geassosieer met ekonomies belangrike eienskappe. Die laasgenoemde beoog om kommersiële voorraad bestuur te verbeter, kragtens deur broeidier seleksie sowel as om insig te verskaf m.b.t. wilde bevolking dinamika. Enkel Nukleotied Polimorfismes (SNPs) is gekies as die toepaslike merker vanweë die omvattende toepaslikheid van hierdie merkers binne die genome van verskeie mariene spesies. Hierdie studie fokus op die karakterisering van nuwe SNPs vanuit transkript volgordes ontwikkel deur middel van Volgende Generasie Volgordebepaling (“Next Generation Sequencing”). ’n Beraamde 40% van transkripte het gelei tot die ontwikkeling van 105 potensiëlemerkers, aanduidend van ’n SNP frekwensie van ~1% binne die H. midae genoom. ’n Sub-versameling van 24 merkers, tesame met 24 bestaande merkers, is gekarakteriseer deur die Illumina GoldenGate genotiperings toets met die VeraCode tegnologie, ’n medium tot hoë deurvloei genotiperingstegnologie. Hierdie is die eerste berig van medium tot hoë deurvloei karakterisering van SNPs in H. midae. Die geselekteerde merkers is gebruik om die doeltreffendheid van die GoldenGate platform te bepaal. Merker karakterisering is uitgevoer in beide wilde en kommersiële bevolkings om die effektiewe bruikbaarheid van hierdie merkers m.b.t. genetiese diversiteit, en bevolking struktuur bepaling, te ondersoek. Die platform het ’n 85% genotiperingsukses syfer getoon. Statistiese analise dui daarop dat merkers ontwikkel tydens hierdie studie toepaslik is vir bevolking genetiese struktuur bepaling, genetiese diversiteitberaming en moontlik ook genetiese koppelingskartering. Hierdie merkers word bestempel as onmisbaar vir toekomstige navorsing in genetiese bestuur en bewaring van H. midae.

The PhD research studied two aspects in tilapia, firstly the analysis of sex determination in Nile tilapia (evidence of complex sex-determining systems) and secondly the genetic management of the tilapia species, using different genomic analysis approaches. This research started with the development of two techniques: minimally invasive DNA sampling from fish mucus, which was found to be suitable for standard genotyping and double-digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing – ddRADseq; and pre-extraction pooling of tissue samples for ddRADseq (BSA-ddRADseq), which was found to be suitable for identifying a locus linked to a trait of interest (sex in this case). The first molecular evidence concerning the sex determination in genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT) was described using BSA-ddRADseq. Given the multiple stock origin of GIFT, surprisingly only a single locus (in linkage group 23) was found to be associated with the phenotypic sex across the population. The first evidence of LG23 influence on phenotypic sex in the Stirling population of Nile tilapia was also found. Different combinations of estrogen hormones and high temperature were tested for feminising Nile tilapia: a combined treatment of estrogen hormone and high temperature was found to be more efficient in feminising Nile tilapia than the estrogen alone. A set of species-diagnostic SNP markers were tested which were found to be suitable to distinguish pure species (O. niloticus, O. mossambicus and O. aureus), and these were used to analyse species contribution to GIFT and a selected tilapia hybrid strain. The results of the current research added novel information to our understanding of sex determination in Nile tilapia, which will be helpful in the development of marker-assisted selection in GIFT and other Nile tilapia strains towards the production of all male offspring. The methods developed also have broader applicability in genetic and genomics research.

A ararinha-azul (Cyanopsitta spixii) é uma das aves mais ameaçadas do mundo e está extinta na natureza. Estudos estão sendo realizados para o manejo e conservação em cativeiro para futura reintrodução. Microssatélites são marcadores moleculares úteis para estimar parentesco entre indivíduos. Esse dado pode ser utilizado para minimizar os efeitos deletérios da endogamia e a perda de diversidade genética do plantel do programa de reprodução em cativeiro, recomendando pares reprodutivos. O presente estudo teve como objetivos identificar microssatélites polimórficos específicos para acessar o nível de diversidade genética da espécie e estimar o parentesco entre pares de aves para auxiliar o manejo genético da população. O genoma de um indivíduo foi parcialmente sequenciado na plataforma 454 GS FLX (Roche). Foram desenhados 25 pares de primers, sendo 20 para dinucleotídeos e cinco para tetranucleotídeos. Dezenove microssatélites puderam ser amplificados e foram testados quanto ao nível de polimorfismo em 12 indivíduos selecionados. Desses, 14 microssatélites foram polimórficos. Também foram usados dados de microssatélites heterólogos nas análises. Dois microssatélites apresentaram desvio do equilíbrio de Hardy-Wenberg e cinco microssatélites foram excluídos devido à presença de desequilíbrio de ligação. A probabilidade de exclusão de paternidade quando um parental é conhecido foi de 94,8% e a probabilidade de identidade foi de 0,00000793. A riqueza alélica média foi de 2,49 alelos por microssatélite, confirmando a baixa diversidade genética da espécie. Alguns alelos já foram perdidos no plantel atual em cativeiro. A população tem valor de índice de parentesco médio similar àquela de, no mínimo, primos de primeiro grau e alguns dos fundadores são muito aparentados. Alguns potenciais casais com baixo índice de parentesco r podem vir a ser importantes para o programa de reprodução em cativeiro. / Spix\'s macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) is one of the most endangered birds of the world and is extinct in the wild. Several coordinated studies are being conducted for its management and conservation in captivity for future reintroduction. Microsatellites are useful markers to estimate relatedness between individuals. This information can be used to minimize the deleterious effects of inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity of captive birds, recommending less closely related pairs for the breeding program. The present study aims to identify specific polymorphic microsatellites to assess the levels of genetic variability of the species and the genetic relatedness among birds for the genetic management of the population. The partial genome of an individual was sequenced on a 454 GS FLX (Roche) platform. Twenty-five pairs of primers were designed, being 20 for di- and five tetra-nucleotide microsatellites. Nineteen microsatellites were amplified and tested in 12 selected individuals. Fourteen microsatellites were polymorphic. Heterologous microsatellites were also used in the analyses. Two microsatellites were not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and five presented linkage disequilibrium. Exclusion paternity probability when one parental is known was 94.8% and identity probability was 0.00000793. Mean allele richness was 2.49 alleles per microsatellite, confirming the low genetic diversity of the species. The current captive population has lost some alleles. The mean relatedness among individuals was, at least, similar to the one between first cousins and some founders are very closely related. Based on the relatedness index, some unrelated potential couples can become important for the captive program.