O carcinoma epidermóide de cabeça e pescoço (CECP) é considerado um dos tumores mais freqüentes em países em desenvolvimento, detectado quase sempre em estádios mais avançados, com poucas opções eficazes de tratamento, o que diminui a taxa de sobrevida para cinco anos em 50%. Os principais fatores de risco associados são consumo de tabaco e de álcool, seguidos da dieta e infecções virais. Não parecem existir até o momento métodos de vigilância, biomarcadores moleculares ou quimioprevenção que tenham se mostrado eficientes. A identificação de polimorfismos em genes de metabolização do tabaco e do álcool tem sido sugerida na busca de marcadores de susceptibilidade individual ao CECP. Dentre as enzimas envolvidos na fase I de metabolização incluem-se as da família do citocromo P450 (CYPs) e da fase II de metabolização as enzimas glutationa S-transferases (GSTs). Incluem-se também os polimorfismos em genes de reparo que podem alterar o risco para desenvolvimento CECP, sobretudo nos indivíduos consumidores de álcool e tabaco. Polimorfismos em CYPs e GSTs podem alterar a dinâmica de metabolização e excreção de carcinógenos aumentando o risco de mutações como adutos de DNA e conseqüentemente o câncer. No presente estudo foram avaliados polimorfismos em genes da fase I (CYP1A1 MspI, CYP2E1 PstI) da fase II (GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1 BsmA) e no gene de reparo XRCC1, em 207 pacientes portadores de CECP, dos quais 92 (44%) com carcinoma epidermóide da cavidade bucal (CECB), e em 244 controles, selecionados no mesmo hospital. A identificação dos polimorfismos a partir do DNA de linfócitos periféricos dos pacientes e controles (PCR-RFLP) revelou maior freqüência do genótipo GSTM1 nulo em pacientes com CECP (53,2%) quando comparados aos controles (37,7%), aumentando em aproximadamente cinco vezes o risco da doença (OR = 4,75; IC 95%, 3,06-7,40). Resultados semelhantes para o genótipo GSTM1 nulo foram encontrados nos casos de CECB (OR = 2,15; IC 95%, 1,28-3,6). Verificou-se também aumento no risco de CECB com o genótipo XRCC1-194Trp (OR = 2,33; IC 95%, 1,08-4,98) e proteção associada ao genótipo XRCC1-399Gln (OR, 0.35; IC 95%, 0.12-0.96) que foi mais prevalente nos controles do que nos pacientes com CECB. A presença simultânea de dois genes desfavoráveis (associação gene-gene) aumentou em torno de duas vezes o risco de CECB quando associados GSTM1-CYP1A1 (OR=1,93; IC 95%, 1,1-3,3), GSTM1-CYP2E1 (OR=2,2; IC 95%, 1,36-3,87), GSTM1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2,44; IC 95%, 1,44-4,14) e CYP2E1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2,0; IC 95%, 1,1 3,62). Quando considerada na análise a interação gene-ambiente verificamos que pacientes com CECB que consumiam acima de 39 maços/ano tinham risco aumentado de câncer associado aos genótipos GSTP1 BmsA (OR = 5,0; IC 95%, 1,9 -12,4) e acima de 20 maços/ano com o genótipo CYP1A1MstI (OR = 53,7; IC 95%, 1,0 -14,2). Por outro lado, o consumo acima de 30 g/l/d, associado ao genótipo XRCC1-194 aumentou oito vezes o risco de CECB (OR = 8,8,; IC 95%, 1,3-45,7) e o genótipo XRCC1-399 parece ter sido um fator de proteção ao CECB mesmo com consumo de álcool acima de 5 a 30 g/l/d (OR = 0,1; IC 95%, 0,03 0,7). Os resultados obtidos parecem sugerir uma contribuição dos polimorfismos genéticos de metabolização do álcool e do tabaco no risco de CECP e da cavidade bucal. A identificação de marcadores genéticos de suscetibilidade individual ao câncer pode auxiliar o médico na indicação de medidas de prevenção e de controle no acompanhamento de pacientes ou da população de risco ao CECP, principalmente fumantes e alcoolistas crônicos. / The squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (HNSCC) is considered one of the most prevalent cancers in developing countries, detected nearly always in well-advanced phases with few effective treatment options, which reduce the survival rate to five years in 50% of the patients. The main risk factors associated with it are tobacco and alcohol intake, followed by diet and viral infections. For the moment, there seems not to be vigilance methods, molecular biomarkers or chemioprevention that have been shown to be efficient. The identification of polymorphisms in tobacco and alcohol metabolizing genes has been suggested in the search for markers of individual susceptibility to the HNSCC. Among the enzymes involved in the metabolizing phase I are those belonging to the P450 cytochrome family (CYPs) while in the metabolizing phase II are included the glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). The repair gene polymorphisms which may alter the risk of developing HNSCC, especially in alcohol and tobacco consumers are also included. Polymorphisms in CYPs and GSTs may alter the metabolizing dynamics and carcinogen excretion increasing the risk of mutations like DNA adducts and, as a consequence, the risk of cancer. In the present study, polymorphisms in phase I genes (CYP1A1 MspI, CYP2E1 PstI) and in Phase II genes (GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1 BsmA) were evaluated, and the repair gene XRCC1 as well, in 207 HNSCC carriers, 92 of them (44%) with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and also in 244 controls selected in the same hospital. The identification of polymorphisms from the DNA of peripheral lymphocytes in patients and control subjects (PCR-RFLP) showed greater prevalence of the GSTM1 null genotype which was higher in patients with HNSCC (53.2%) when compared to the controls (37.7%), increasing about five times as much the risk for the disease (OR = 4.75; 95% CI, 3.06-7.40). Similar results for the GSTM1 null genotype were found in the OSCC (OR = 2.15; 95% CI, 1.28-3.6). It was also observed that there was a rise in the risk for OSCC with the XRCC1-194Trp (OR = 2.33; 95% CI, 1.08-4.98) genotype and some protection associated with the XRCC1-399Gln (OR, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.12-0.96) genotype, which was more prevalent in the control subjects than in the OSCC patients. The simultaneous presence of two unfavourable genes (gene-gene association) approximately doubled the risk for OSCC when GSTM1-CYP1A1 (0R=1.93; 95% CI, 1.1-3.3), GSTM1-CYP2E1 (0R=2.2; CI 95%, 1.36-3.87), GSTM1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2.44; CI 95%, 1.44-4.14) and CYP2E1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2.0; CI 95%, 1.1 3.62) were associated. When the interaction gene-environment was considered in the analysis, it was found that OSCC patients who were used to consuming above 39 cigarette packs a year had an increase in the risk of getting cancer associated with the GSTP1 BmsA (OR=5.0; CI 95%, 1.9-12.4) genotypes and above 20 packs a year associated with the CYP1A1MstI (OR = 53.7; CI 95%, 1.0 - 14.2) genotype. On the other hand, the above-30-g/l/d consumption associated with the XRCC1-194 genotype raised eight times as much the risk for ECOC (OR=8,8; CI 95%, 1.3-45.7) and the XRCC1-399 genotype seems to have been a protection factor against ECOC even with alcohol consumption above 5 to 30 g/l/d (OR=0.1; CI 95%, 0.03 0.7). The results obtained seem to suggest a contribution of the genetic polymorphisms of the alcohol-and-tobacco-related metabolizing enzymes to HNSCC and the OSCC. The identification of genetic markers of individual susceptibility to cancer may help the clinician with the indication of prevention and control measures for the medical follow-up of patients or the population at risk of contracting SCCHN, mainly chronic smokers and alcoholics.

O carcinoma epidermóide de cabeça e pescoço (CECP) é considerado um dos tumores mais freqüentes em países em desenvolvimento, detectado quase sempre em estádios mais avançados, com poucas opções eficazes de tratamento, o que diminui a taxa de sobrevida para cinco anos em 50%. Os principais fatores de risco associados são consumo de tabaco e de álcool, seguidos da dieta e infecções virais. Não parecem existir até o momento métodos de vigilância, biomarcadores moleculares ou quimioprevenção que tenham se mostrado eficientes. A identificação de polimorfismos em genes de metabolização do tabaco e do álcool tem sido sugerida na busca de marcadores de susceptibilidade individual ao CECP. Dentre as enzimas envolvidos na fase I de metabolização incluem-se as da família do citocromo P450 (CYPs) e da fase II de metabolização as enzimas glutationa S-transferases (GSTs). Incluem-se também os polimorfismos em genes de reparo que podem alterar o risco para desenvolvimento CECP, sobretudo nos indivíduos consumidores de álcool e tabaco. Polimorfismos em CYPs e GSTs podem alterar a dinâmica de metabolização e excreção de carcinógenos aumentando o risco de mutações como adutos de DNA e conseqüentemente o câncer. No presente estudo foram avaliados polimorfismos em genes da fase I (CYP1A1 MspI, CYP2E1 PstI) da fase II (GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1 BsmA) e no gene de reparo XRCC1, em 207 pacientes portadores de CECP, dos quais 92 (44%) com carcinoma epidermóide da cavidade bucal (CECB), e em 244 controles, selecionados no mesmo hospital. A identificação dos polimorfismos a partir do DNA de linfócitos periféricos dos pacientes e controles (PCR-RFLP) revelou maior freqüência do genótipo GSTM1 nulo em pacientes com CECP (53,2%) quando comparados aos controles (37,7%), aumentando em aproximadamente cinco vezes o risco da doença (OR = 4,75; IC 95%, 3,06-7,40). Resultados semelhantes para o genótipo GSTM1 nulo foram encontrados nos casos de CECB (OR = 2,15; IC 95%, 1,28-3,6). Verificou-se também aumento no risco de CECB com o genótipo XRCC1-194Trp (OR = 2,33; IC 95%, 1,08-4,98) e proteção associada ao genótipo XRCC1-399Gln (OR, 0.35; IC 95%, 0.12-0.96) que foi mais prevalente nos controles do que nos pacientes com CECB. A presença simultânea de dois genes desfavoráveis (associação gene-gene) aumentou em torno de duas vezes o risco de CECB quando associados GSTM1-CYP1A1 (OR=1,93; IC 95%, 1,1-3,3), GSTM1-CYP2E1 (OR=2,2; IC 95%, 1,36-3,87), GSTM1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2,44; IC 95%, 1,44-4,14) e CYP2E1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2,0; IC 95%, 1,1 3,62). Quando considerada na análise a interação gene-ambiente verificamos que pacientes com CECB que consumiam acima de 39 maços/ano tinham risco aumentado de câncer associado aos genótipos GSTP1 BmsA (OR = 5,0; IC 95%, 1,9 -12,4) e acima de 20 maços/ano com o genótipo CYP1A1MstI (OR = 53,7; IC 95%, 1,0 -14,2). Por outro lado, o consumo acima de 30 g/l/d, associado ao genótipo XRCC1-194 aumentou oito vezes o risco de CECB (OR = 8,8,; IC 95%, 1,3-45,7) e o genótipo XRCC1-399 parece ter sido um fator de proteção ao CECB mesmo com consumo de álcool acima de 5 a 30 g/l/d (OR = 0,1; IC 95%, 0,03 0,7). Os resultados obtidos parecem sugerir uma contribuição dos polimorfismos genéticos de metabolização do álcool e do tabaco no risco de CECP e da cavidade bucal. A identificação de marcadores genéticos de suscetibilidade individual ao câncer pode auxiliar o médico na indicação de medidas de prevenção e de controle no acompanhamento de pacientes ou da população de risco ao CECP, principalmente fumantes e alcoolistas crônicos. / The squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (HNSCC) is considered one of the most prevalent cancers in developing countries, detected nearly always in well-advanced phases with few effective treatment options, which reduce the survival rate to five years in 50% of the patients. The main risk factors associated with it are tobacco and alcohol intake, followed by diet and viral infections. For the moment, there seems not to be vigilance methods, molecular biomarkers or chemioprevention that have been shown to be efficient. The identification of polymorphisms in tobacco and alcohol metabolizing genes has been suggested in the search for markers of individual susceptibility to the HNSCC. Among the enzymes involved in the metabolizing phase I are those belonging to the P450 cytochrome family (CYPs) while in the metabolizing phase II are included the glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). The repair gene polymorphisms which may alter the risk of developing HNSCC, especially in alcohol and tobacco consumers are also included. Polymorphisms in CYPs and GSTs may alter the metabolizing dynamics and carcinogen excretion increasing the risk of mutations like DNA adducts and, as a consequence, the risk of cancer. In the present study, polymorphisms in phase I genes (CYP1A1 MspI, CYP2E1 PstI) and in Phase II genes (GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1 BsmA) were evaluated, and the repair gene XRCC1 as well, in 207 HNSCC carriers, 92 of them (44%) with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and also in 244 controls selected in the same hospital. The identification of polymorphisms from the DNA of peripheral lymphocytes in patients and control subjects (PCR-RFLP) showed greater prevalence of the GSTM1 null genotype which was higher in patients with HNSCC (53.2%) when compared to the controls (37.7%), increasing about five times as much the risk for the disease (OR = 4.75; 95% CI, 3.06-7.40). Similar results for the GSTM1 null genotype were found in the OSCC (OR = 2.15; 95% CI, 1.28-3.6). It was also observed that there was a rise in the risk for OSCC with the XRCC1-194Trp (OR = 2.33; 95% CI, 1.08-4.98) genotype and some protection associated with the XRCC1-399Gln (OR, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.12-0.96) genotype, which was more prevalent in the control subjects than in the OSCC patients. The simultaneous presence of two unfavourable genes (gene-gene association) approximately doubled the risk for OSCC when GSTM1-CYP1A1 (0R=1.93; 95% CI, 1.1-3.3), GSTM1-CYP2E1 (0R=2.2; CI 95%, 1.36-3.87), GSTM1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2.44; CI 95%, 1.44-4.14) and CYP2E1-XRCC1-194 (OR=2.0; CI 95%, 1.1 3.62) were associated. When the interaction gene-environment was considered in the analysis, it was found that OSCC patients who were used to consuming above 39 cigarette packs a year had an increase in the risk of getting cancer associated with the GSTP1 BmsA (OR=5.0; CI 95%, 1.9-12.4) genotypes and above 20 packs a year associated with the CYP1A1MstI (OR = 53.7; CI 95%, 1.0 - 14.2) genotype. On the other hand, the above-30-g/l/d consumption associated with the XRCC1-194 genotype raised eight times as much the risk for ECOC (OR=8,8; CI 95%, 1.3-45.7) and the XRCC1-399 genotype seems to have been a protection factor against ECOC even with alcohol consumption above 5 to 30 g/l/d (OR=0.1; CI 95%, 0.03 0.7). The results obtained seem to suggest a contribution of the genetic polymorphisms of the alcohol-and-tobacco-related metabolizing enzymes to HNSCC and the OSCC. The identification of genetic markers of individual susceptibility to cancer may help the clinician with the indication of prevention and control measures for the medical follow-up of patients or the population at risk of contracting SCCHN, mainly chronic smokers and alcoholics.

Two pieces of complementary research dealing with the study of the importance of genetic factors on the quality of the Spanish dry-cured ham Jamón Serrano were carried out for this thesis. The first one compared Serrano dry-cured hams made from typical commercial lines of four representative breeds (Duroc, Landrace, Large White and Piétrain) subjected to the current standard industrial process. Most of the differences in raw material, final composition and rheology were between Piétrain and the other three breeds. Duroc breed showed the most important differences in instrumental colour and appearance, probably caused by its higher intramuscular fat content. The differences between the four breeds in dry-cured ham sensory quality were too small to discriminate them on single traits. However, according to multivariate analyses (PCA), the Large White showed the most appropriate sensory characteristics for dry-cured ham production of the four pure breeds under the processing conditions used, while the Piétrain showed the least appropriate ones. The second piece of research studied the effect of the previously identified PRKAG3 and CAST genetic polymorphisms (PRKAG3 Ile199Val, CAST Arg249Lys and CAST Ser638Arg) on the quality traits of the Spanish dry-cured ham Jamón Serrano. Associations between the polymorphisms and traits of flavour and texture were found. The PRKAG3 Ile/Ile genotype, the CAST249 Arg/Arg genotype, the CAST638 Arg/Arg genotype and the haplotype CAST 249Arg-638Arg are the most favourable for the production of the Spanish dry-cured ham Jamón Serrano. It can be concluded that the effect of different pure breeds was not strong enough to produce significant perceivable differences between dry-cured hams. In contrast, differences between genotypes of PRKAG3 and CAST polymorphisms on proteolysis and sensory traits indicated that polymorphisms could induce perceivable differences in the sensory quality of dry-cured hams. Accordingly, genetic polymorphisms could be better indicators of material screening in the dry-cured ham industry than breeds. / En aquesta tesi s’han realitzat dos estudis complementaris sobre la importància dels factors genètics sobre la qualitat del pernil curat Jamón Serrano. El primer compara pernils curats elaborats a partir de línies genètiques comerciales de quatre races representatives (Duroc, Landrace, Large White y Piétrain) i sotmesos a un procés industrial estàndard i actual Les majors diferències en els pernils frescos i en la composició i reologia final es van observar entre Piétrain i les altres tres races. La raça Duroc va presentar les principals diferències en color instrumental i aparença sensorial, probablement degut al seu alt contingut de greix intramuscular. Les diferències en característiques sensorials entre les quatre races van ser massa petites per a poder discriminar entre elles en base a característiques individuals. No obstant, considerant les anàlisis multivariades (PCA), la raça Large White va mostrar les característiques sensorials més apropiades per al pernil curat en les condicions de elaboració aquí utilitzades, mentres que la raça Piétrain va mostrar les menys apropiades. El segon estudi analitza l’efecte dels polimorfismes genètics PRKAG3 i CAST, prèviament identificats (PRKAG3 Ile199Val, CAST Arg249Lys i CAST Ser638Arg), sobre les característiques de qualitat del pernil curat espanyol Jamón Serrano. Hi va haver associacions significatives dels genotips PRKAG3, CAST249 i CAST638 i del haplotip CAST amb varis caràcters relacionats amb flavor i textura. Els genotips PRKAG3 Ile/Ile, CAST249 Arg/Arg, CAST638 Arg/Arg i l’haplotip CAST 249Arg-638Arg són els més favorables per a l’elaboració del pernil curat Jamón Serrano. Es pot concloure que l’efecte de la raça no va ser prou fort per a provocar diferències perceptibles entre els pernils curats. Per contra, les diferències entre genotips dels polimorfismes PRKAG3 i CAST poden induir diferències perceptibles en la qualitat sensorial dels pernils curats. En conseqüència, els polimorfismes genètics podrien ser millors indicadors per a la selecció de la matèria prima a les indústries elaboradores de pernil curat que les races.