The melanocortin (MC) receptors are G-protein coupled receptors thatparticipate in several important physiological functions such as the regulation of the energy balance. This thesis focuses on the evolutionary aspect of the MC receptors and their pharmacology. One MC4 receptor and two MC5 receptor subtypes were found in a teleost fish, zebrafish. This indicates that the MC receptor subtypes arose very early in vertebrate evolution. Important pharmacological and functional properties, as well as gene structure and syntenic relationships have been highly conserved over a period of more than 400 million years implying that these receptors participate in vital physiological functions. Moreover, we found a MC4 receptor from a shark, spiny dogfish that represents the most distant MC receptor gene cloned to date. We also characterized the pharmacology of a MC4 receptor in goldfish. The conserved central expression pattern and physiological role in regulation of food intake of the MC4 receptor suggests that neuronal pathways of the melanocortin system may be important for regulation of energy homeostasis in most vertebrates. We determined the chromosomal position of the chicken MC receptors genes and found conserved synteny of the MC2, MC5, and MC4 receptor genes. These results suggest that there exist a clustering of these genes that is ancient. Analysis of conserved synteny with mammalian genomes and paralogon segments prompted us to predict an ancestral gene organization that may explain how this family has been formed through both local duplication and tetraploidization processes. There are several common point mutations in the human MC1 receptor that are over represented in North European red-heads, and in individuals with pale skin. We pharmacologically characterised four naturally occurring human MC1 receptor variants providing molecular explanation to the respective phenotype. The MC receptor subtypes have highly diverse physiological functions despite having relative high similarities in their primary structure. Our studies on the structural and functional properties of the MC receptor subtypes have provided insight into the molecular mechanism of how the specification of these receptors may have occurred.

La publication du génome de la paramécie (Aury, 2006) a révélé une séquence atypique particulièrement intéressante pour les études de génomique évolutive. Au cours de cette thèse, j’ai mené une analyse bioinformatique détaillée de ce génome en me concentrant particulièrement sur les trois points suivants : 1) Le rôle de deux classes distinctes de petits ARN fonctionnels non codants, l’une intervenant dans les processus de régulation de l’expression des gènes tandis que l’autre participe aux réarrangements génomiques (élimination de fragments d’ADN) associés au cycle sexuel de la paramécie. 2) L’évolution des paires de gènes après une duplication globale de génome (WGD). En effet, avec une WGD relativement récente précédée de deux autres WGDs plus anciennes encore bien visibles, la paramécie est un modèle de choix pour cette étude. Nous avons pu montrer que la rétention des deux copies d’un gène après une WGD est fortement corrélée au niveau d’expression des gènes. Nous proposons un modèle basé sur les coûts et bénéfices de l’expression des gènes pour expliquer cette observation. 3) L’analyse de contraintes sélectives sur les introns pour produire des messagers détectables par le Nonsense-Mediated mRNA Decay (NMD). Ces contraintes sélectives, mises en évidence initialement chez la paramécie, se sont avérées être présentes chez tous les eucaryotes que nous avons pu analyser, ce qui nous amène à questionner l’efficacité des mécanismes d’épissage chez les eucaryotes et le rôle du NMD dans la prévention des erreurs d’épissage. L’ensemble de ces analyses a permis de mieux comprendre un certain nombre de mécanismes évolutifs universels / This work presents a detailed analysis of the paramecium genome, with focusing more precisely on the 3 following topics : 1) The role of two distinct classes of small non-coding RNAs. The first one (siRNAs) being involved in post-transcriptional gene silencing while the other (scanRNAs) plays a crucial role during the massive genomic rearrangements that occur in ciliates after sexual reproduction (Lepère et al. 2009). 2) The evolution of duplicated genes following Whole-Genome Duplications (WGDs). Indeed, the paramecium genome contains evidences for 3 successive WGDs (Aury et al. 2006), which explains why this organisms is perfectly well suited for such an analysis. We show that retention of duplicated genes is strongly correlated to their expression level and we propose a model based on cost and benefit of gene expression to explain this pattern. 3) The analysis of the extremely tiny introns in paramecium (99% of introns are less than 20-33nt in length) revealed the presence of a translational control of splicing in eukaryotes. This work suggests that splicing errors are frequent and that eukaryotic cells rely on the Nonsense-mediated mRNA Decay to detect aberrant transcripts produced by splicing errors (Jaillon et al. 2008). These analyses provide new insights on several evolutionary mechanisms that shape the genomes of eukaryotes

Higher teleost fishes, including zebrafish and fugu, have duplicated their Hox genes relative to the gene inventory of other gnathostome lineages. The most widely accepted theory contends that the duplicate Hox clusters orginated synchronously during a single genome duplication event in the early history of ray-finned fishes. In this contribution we collect and re-evaluate all publicly available sequence information. In particular, we show that the short Hox gene fragments from published PCR surveys of the killifish Fundulus heteroclitus, the medaka Oryzias latipes and the goldfish Carassius auratus can be used to determine with little ambiguity not only their paralog group but also their membership in a particular cluster. Together with a survey of the genomic sequence data from the pufferfish Tetraodon nigroviridis we show that at least percomorpha, and possibly all eutelosts, share a system of 7 or 8 orthologous Hox gene clusters. There is little doubt about the orthology of the two teleost duplicates of the HoxA and HoxB clusters. A careful analysis of both the coding sequence of Hox genes and of conserved non-coding sequences provides additional support for the “duplication early” hypothesis that the Hox clusters in teleosts are derived from eight ancestral clusters by means of subsequent gene loss; the data remain ambiguous, however, in particular for the HoxC clusters. Assuming the “duplication early” hypothesis we use the new evidence on the Hox gene complements to determine the phylogenetic positions of gene-loss events in the wake of the cluster duplication. Surprisingly, we find that the resolution of redundancy seems to be a slow process that is still ongoing. A few suggestions on which additional sequence data would be most informative for resolving the history of the teleostean Hox genes are discussed.

Hematopoiesis is a precisely regulated process, dependent on the activity of hematopoietic cytokines and their receptors. Due to an extra round of whole genome duplication in teleost fish, two paralogs of many important genes, including some hematopoietic cytokines and their receptors, are present in the zebrafish (Danio rerio) genome. In this project, we have been investigating the role of zebrafish Kit ligands in hematopoiesis. Kit ligand is a pleiotropic cytokine, which is essential for vertebrate erythropoiesis; however, in zebrafish, no such role has been reported so far. To determine the function of zebrafish paralogs of Kit ligand (Kitlga and Kitlgb) in hematopoiesis, we performed in vivo and ex vivo gain- and loss-of-function experiments. Strikingly, we were the first to report the synergistic cooperation of zebrafish Kitlga with erythropoietin and dexamethasone, enabling the growth of kidney marrow-derived suspension cells and providing optimal conditions for the expansion of adult erythroid progenitors. We assume that by using different cytokine combinations, optimal conditions for the growth of other hematopoietic cell types can be established, and therefore, this new approach now available for the...

L’inférence de génomes ancestraux est une étape essentielle pour l’étude de l’évolution des génomes. Connaissant les génomes d’espèces éteintes, on peut proposer des mécanismes biologiques expliquant les divergences entre les génomes des espèces modernes. Diverses méthodes visant à résoudre ce problème existent, se classant parmis deux grandes catégories : les méthodes de distance et les méthodes de synténie. L’état de l’art des distances génomiques ne permettant qu’un certain répertoire de réarrangements pour le moment, les méthodes de synténie sont donc plus appropriées en pratique. Nous proposons une méthode de synténie pour la reconstruction de génomes ancestraux basée sur une définition relaxée d’adjacences de gènes, permettant un contenu en gène inégal dans les génomes modernes causé par des pertes de gènes de même que des duplications de génomes entiers (DGE). Des simulations sont effectuées, démontrant une capacité de former une solution assemblée en un nombre réduit de régions ancestrales contigües par rapport à d’autres méthodes tout en gardant une bonne fiabilité. Des applications sur des données de levures et de plantes céréalières montrent des résultats en accord avec d’autres publications, notamment la présence de fusion imbriquée de chromosomes pendant l’évolution des céréales. / Ancestral genome inference is a decisive step for studying genome evolution. Knowing genomes from extinct species, one can propose biological mecanisms explaining divergences between extant species genomes. Various methods classified in two categories have been developped : distance based methods and synteny based methods. The state of the art of distance based methods only permit a certain repertoire of genomic rearrangements, thus synteny based methods are more appropriate in practice for the time being. We propose a synteny method for ancestral genome reconstruction based on a relaxed defenition of gene adjacencies, permitting unequal gene content in extant genomes caused by gene losses and whole genome duplications (WGD). Simulations results demonstrate our method’s ability to form a more assembled solution rather than a collection of contiguous ancestral regions (CAR) with respect to other methods, while maintaining a good reliability. Applications on data sets from yeasts and cereal species show results agreeing with other publications, notably the existence of nested chromosome fusion during the evolution of cereals.

L’inférence de génomes ancestraux est une étape essentielle pour l’étude de l’évolution des génomes. Connaissant les génomes d’espèces éteintes, on peut proposer des mécanismes biologiques expliquant les divergences entre les génomes des espèces modernes. Diverses méthodes visant à résoudre ce problème existent, se classant parmis deux grandes catégories : les méthodes de distance et les méthodes de synténie. L’état de l’art des distances génomiques ne permettant qu’un certain répertoire de réarrangements pour le moment, les méthodes de synténie sont donc plus appropriées en pratique. Nous proposons une méthode de synténie pour la reconstruction de génomes ancestraux basée sur une définition relaxée d’adjacences de gènes, permettant un contenu en gène inégal dans les génomes modernes causé par des pertes de gènes de même que des duplications de génomes entiers (DGE). Des simulations sont effectuées, démontrant une capacité de former une solution assemblée en un nombre réduit de régions ancestrales contigües par rapport à d’autres méthodes tout en gardant une bonne fiabilité. Des applications sur des données de levures et de plantes céréalières montrent des résultats en accord avec d’autres publications, notamment la présence de fusion imbriquée de chromosomes pendant l’évolution des céréales. / Ancestral genome inference is a decisive step for studying genome evolution. Knowing genomes from extinct species, one can propose biological mecanisms explaining divergences between extant species genomes. Various methods classified in two categories have been developped : distance based methods and synteny based methods. The state of the art of distance based methods only permit a certain repertoire of genomic rearrangements, thus synteny based methods are more appropriate in practice for the time being. We propose a synteny method for ancestral genome reconstruction based on a relaxed defenition of gene adjacencies, permitting unequal gene content in extant genomes caused by gene losses and whole genome duplications (WGD). Simulations results demonstrate our method’s ability to form a more assembled solution rather than a collection of contiguous ancestral regions (CAR) with respect to other methods, while maintaining a good reliability. Applications on data sets from yeasts and cereal species show results agreeing with other publications, notably the existence of nested chromosome fusion during the evolution of cereals.

This work addresses two areas of computational biology: automation of sequence processing and an assessment of the evidence for a hypothesized salmonid genome based on an analysis of a set of expressed sequence tags. Three problem areas in sequence processing are addressed in the first half of the work. Chapter 3 describes an accurate technique for trimming of vector, adapter and poly(A) sequence. Chapter 4 suggests methods for verifying the accuracy of assembled mRNA transcripts despite a large number of chimeras in the cDNA clone libraries. Chapter 5 is concerned with the problem of estimating the number of transcripts in a tissue or cDNA library, concluding that computational and statistical techniques are inadequate to estimate the quantity accurately. The hypothesized salmonid genome duplication has been widely accepted since 1984. If it occurred, it should have left evidence in the form of many paralogous pairs of genes, all at approximately the same degree of sequence divergence. To assess this question, several hundred thousand ESTs were assembled into transcripts, compared to each other to find homologs, and the evolutionary distances of the homologs represented as a histogram. Evidence of a single evolutionary event was not seen. The same procedure was applied to Xenopus laevis, which has a well-established recent genome duplication, and Danio rerio, which is known not to have had one. In those cases, the evidence for or against a genome duplication appeared exactly as predicted. The conclusion is that if the salmonid genome duplication occurred, some force altered its evolutionary development subsequently to mask the duplication, but also that a genome duplication is not necessary to explain the observed pattern of homolog distances.

Les familles de gènes impliqués dans le cancer et autres maladies génétiques se sont beaucoup élargies via deux Duplications Globales de Génome (DGG) qui ont eu lieu à l'origine des vertébrés. La rétention des copies de ces gènes implique une susceptibilité plus grande aux maladies génétiques et constitue une énigme du point de vue de l'évolution. Dans cette thèse, nous avons généralisé des modèles classiques de génétique des populations pour révéler le mécanisme non-adaptatif qui a conduit à cette conservation de gènes potentiellement délétères chez les vertébrés. Nous avons résolu un modèle déterministe haploïde, nous avons étendu ce modèle à des génomes diploïdes et nous avons analysé les effets de taille finie des populations et de la sélection positive par une approche stochastique. Les résultats montrent, en accord avec les données génomiques du cancer chez l'homme, que les copies DGG susceptibles aux mutations délétères dominantes sont conservées indirectement via la sélection de purification dans les espèces post-DGG, qui présentent nécessairement une incompatibilité de ploïdie avec la population pre-DGG. Les résultats obtenus en étendant des méthodes avancées d'inférence bayésienne, quantifiant les effets causaux directs, soutiennent l'hypothèse d'une influence directe de la susceptibilité aux mutations délétères dominantes sur la rétention des copies DGG. Ces résultats révèlent le mécanisme d'évolution non-adaptatif responsable de la rétention de gènes DGG susceptibles aux mutations délétères dominantes et notre extension de méthodes d'inférence bayesienne ouvre la voie à la quantification des relations causales directes dans un large ensemble de problématiques. / Gene families implicated in cancer and other genetic diseases have been greatly expanded through two rounds of whole-genome duplication (WGD) that occurred at the onset of jawed vertebrates. However, such gene duplicates are expected to lead to an enhanced susceptibility to genetic diseases, and thus their retention represents an evolutionary puzzle from a natural selection perspective. In this thesis, we have expanded classical population genetics models to reveal the non-adaptive mechanism through which such potentially deleterious ohnologs (WGD-duplicated genes) were retained in the vertebrate genomes. We have solved a deterministic haploid model, we have considered extensions to diploid genotypes, and we have analyzed population size effects and the impact of positive selection through a stochastic approach. The results demonstrate, consistently with available human cancer genome data, that ohnologs prone to dominant deleterious mutations are indirectly selected through purifying selection in post-WGD species, arisen through the ploidy incompatibility between post-WGD individuals and the rest of the pre-WGD population. Extending advanced Bayesian inference methods to quantify direct and indirect causal effects, we have found further supporting evidences for the direct role of the gene susceptibility to deleterious mutations on ohnolog retention. Our findings rationalize the evolutionary mechanism responsible for the expansion of ohnologs prone to dominant deleterious mutations, highlighting the role of WGD-induced speciation. Our extension of Bayesian inference methods paves the way for the identification of direct causal relationships in a huge variety of problems.

[ES] Resumen Como pez de gran valor económico, procedente de una de las líneas de teleósteos más antiguas, con un ciclo de vida misterioso, un potencial de acuicultura excepcional, y con importancia cultural y actividades de pesca en casi todos los países de Europa, la anguila europea posee un enorme valor socioeconómico. Este valor se suma a la desgraciada situación actual en peligro crítico de población natural de anguilas europeas. Como el ciclo de vida de la anguila aún no se ha conseguido cerrar en cautiverio, si la especie se extingue en la naturaleza, no seremos capaces de recuperarla. El cierre del ciclo de vida de la anguila europea ha sido, por lo tanto, el objetivo final de varios estudios. Sin embargo, a pesar de una investigación científica sustancial, desde la década de 1930, varios aspectos de la maduración de la anguila, como el mecanismo que bloquea la maduración de la anguila en la etapa prepúber en cautiverio, aún no se conocen bien. Por lo tanto, es necesario ampliar nuestro conocimiento sobre la reproducción de la anguila para inducir mejores hipótesis y lograr un progreso sustancial. Para profundizar en este campo, esta tesis se realizó con el objetivo específico de desarrollar métodos innovadores para la inducción de la maduración de la anguila y aumentar el conjunto de conocimientos sobre los procesos europeos de maduración de la anguila. Los procedimientos hormonales utilizados actualmente para la maduración sexual de la anguila artificial probablemente no induzcan el proceso natural de maduración. Por lo tanto, esta tesis ha evaluado el potencial de las hormonas recombinantes específicas de la anguila para inducir un proceso de maduración más natural. Este estudio específico mostró que la espermatogénesis completa y la espermiación se pueden inducir con gonadotropinas específicas de anguila recombinante; sin embargo, la calidad del gameto resultante es aún inferior a los resultados de los protocolos establecidos. Sin embargo, la utilización de hormonas recombinantes tiene un gran potencial para futuras implementaciones. Además, el experimento de gonadotropina recombinante ha generado nuevos detalles sobre el efecto de las gonadotropinas homólogas en el eje BPG de las anguilas europeas. Trabajos previos han llevado a la hipótesis de que un tratamiento térmico adecuado puede reducir o reemplazar parcialmente los tratamientos hormonales estándar para la maduración sexual de la anguila europea, o puede mejorar la calidad y / o cantidad de gametos. En esta tesis, se probó el efecto de varios regímenes térmicos en el eje BPG de machos de anguila europeos prepúberes, sin administración de hormonas. Los resultados muestran claramente que un tratamiento de agua de mar fría durante 2 semanas (10 ° C) afecta el eje BPG de los machos de anguila europeas. Los resultados específicos incluyeron un aumento en la sincronización de espermatogonias, niveles elevados de testosterona y 11-ketotestosterona en plasma, agrupamiento de muestras de transcriptomas del eje BPG del grupo tratado con agua de mar fría y posiblemente niveles aumentados de la proteína subunidad ß de la hormona luteinizante de la hipófisis. Los genes transcritos diferencialmente incluyeron varios genes, procesos y vías interesantes, que parecen estar involucrados en la maduración "natural" temprana de la anguila y que pueden ser biomarcadores adecuados para las distintas etapas de este proceso. Para un análisis adecuado de los datos transcriptómicos, se creó un transcriptoma de anguila europea de novo. Se demostró que este transcriptoma de novo posee una superior integridad al genoma de anguila europea disponible y, por lo tanto, es una herramienta útil para el análisis adicional de genes específicos. Un análisis de este transcriptoma reveló un gran número de pares de genes parálogos, que mostraron una baja divergencia entre secuencias sinónimas. Entre las hipótesis potenciales sobre e / [CAT] Com a espècie de renom culinari que pertany a un dels llinatges teleostis més antics, amb un cicle vital misteriós, un potencial d'aqüicultura excepcional, i una tradició pesquera a gairebé tots els països d'Europa, l'anguila europea posseeix un enorme valor socioeconòmic. No obstant això, aquest valor només fa que augmentar la preocupació de la seva població, que actualment es troba catalogada com "en perill crític d'extinció". Atès que el cicle de vida de les anguiles encara no ha estat tancat en captivitat, l'espècie no serà salvable en el cas que s'extingeixi en estat natural, per la qual cosa tancar el cicle de vida d'aquesta espècie ha estat l'objectiu final de diversos grups d'investigació durant els últims anys.. No obstant això, i malgrat la investigació científica de qualitat duta a terme des de la dècada de 1930, encara hi han diversos aspectes de la maduració de les anguiles -com el mecanisme que bloqueja la maduració sexual de l'anguila a l'etapa pre-puberal en captivitat- que son poc coneguts en l'actualitat. Per tal d'ampliar els coneixements sobre la reproducció de les anguiles i aconseguir un progrés substancial, aquesta tesi es va dur a terme amb l'objectiu específic de desenvolupar mètodes innovadors per a la inducció de la maduració de l'anguila europea, a més de afegir-hi el coneixement en els processos de maduració bàsics d'aquesta espècie. Els procediments hormonals utilitzats actualment per a la maduració artificial de l'anguila europea no acaben d'induir el procés de maduració natural tal i com probablement es dóna a la natura. Doncs, en primer lloc, aquesta tesi va avaluar el potencial d'hormones recombinants específiques d'anguila europea per induir un procés de maduració molt més natural. Aquest estudi específic va mostrar que mitjançant estes gonadotropines específiques d'anguila europea és possible induir l'espermatogènesi i l'espermiació completes. Tot i que els resultats van mostrar que la qualitat dels gamets va ser inferior als resultats que generen els protocols establerts fins ara amb un altre tipus d'hormones (generalment d'origen humà), la utilització d'hormones recombinants específiques es presenta amb un gran potencial per a la seva implementació futura en la inducció de la maduració sexual de l'anguila europea, ja que l'estudi va generar noves idees sobre l'efecte de les gonadotropines l'eix BPG de l'anguila europea. En segon lloc, i treballant amb la hipòtesi que un tractament tèrmic adequat pot reduir o substituir parcialment els tractaments hormonals estàndards per a la maduració sexual de l'anguila europea, en aquesta tesi es va provar l'efecte de diversos règims tèrmics (sense administració d'hormones) en l'eix BPG dels mascles europeus pre-puberals amb l'objectiu de millorar la qualitat i / o quantitat dels gamets. Els resultats mostraren clarament que un tractament d'aigua de mar de 2 setmanes a baixa temperatura (10 °C) va afectar l'eix BPG dels mascles europeus d'anguila. Resultats més específics van mostrar un augment de la sincronització de les espermatogonies, elevats nivells plasmàtics de testosterona i 11-ketotestosterona, una agrupació de mostres de transcriptoma de l'eix BPG del grup tractat amb aigua de mar freda i, possiblement, un augment dels nivells de la proteïna de la subunitat ß de la hormona luteinitzant de la hipofisi. Els gens transcrits diferencials van al·ludir a diversos gens, processos i vies interessants, que semblen estar implicats en la maduració inicial de l'anguila "natural" i podrien resultar biomarcadors adequats per a les etapes d'aquest procés. No obstant això, es necessiten estudis addicionals per avaluar el potencial dels biomarcadors d'aquests gens i, de manera complementària, comprovar si un pre-tractament d'aigua de mar freda pot millorar la resposta de les anguiles europees a un tractament hormonal artificial, com suggereixen els resultats. Finalment, amb l'objectiu / [EN] As an expensive fish from one of the most ancient teleost lineages, with a mysterious life cycle, exceptional aquaculture potential, and cultural associations and fishing activity in almost every country in Europe, the European eel possess huge socioeconomic value. This value only adds to the misfortune of the current critically endangered state of the wild European eel population. As the eel lifecycle has not yet been closed in captivity, the species will not be salvable if it went extinct in the wild. Closing the life-cycle of the European eel has thus been the ultimate objective of several studies. However, despite the substantial scientific investigation, since the 1930s, several aspects of eel maturation, such as the mechanism which blocks eel sexual maturation at the pre-pubertal stage in captivity, is still poorly understood. Therefore, it is necessary to broaden our knowledge of eel reproduction to induce better hypotheses and therethrough achieve substantial progress. In order to further this field, this thesis was conducted with the specific objective of developing innovative methods for induction of eel maturation and add to the pool of knowledge of European eel maturation processes. The hormonal procedures currently used for artificial eel sexual maturation are probably not inducing the natural maturation process. Therefore, this thesis has evaluated the potential of eel specific recombinant hormones to induce a more natural maturation process. This specific study showed that full spermatogenesis and spermiation can be induced with recombinant eel specific gonadotropins; however, the resulting gamete quality is still inferior to the results of established protocols. Nevertheless, the utilization of recombinant hormones holds a large potential for future implementation. Furthermore, the recombinant gonadotropin experiment has generated novel insights into the effect of homologous gonadotropins on the BPG axis of European eels. Previous work has led to the hypothesis that the right thermal environmental treatment may reduce or partially replace the standard hormonal treatments for sexual maturation of European eel, or may improve gamete quality and/or quantity. In this thesis, the effect of various thermal regimes was tested on the BPG axis of pre-pubertal European eel males, without administration of hormones. The results clearly show that a 2 week cold (10 °C) seawater treatment effects the BPG-axis of European eel males. Specific results included an increase in the synchronization of spermatogonial cells, elevated testosterone and 11-ketotestosterone plasma levels, clustering of BPG-axis transcriptome samples from the cold seawater treated group and possibly increased levels of pituitary luteinizing hormone ß-subunit protein. Differentially transcribed genes alluded to several interesting genes, processes, and pathways, which appears to be involved in early "natural" eel maturation and may prove to be suitable biomarkers for the stages of this process. In order for proper analysis of the transcriptomic data, a de novo European eel transcriptome was assembled. This de novo transcriptome was proven to have superior completeness to the available European eel genome and is thus a useful tool for further analysis of specific genes. An analysis of this transcriptome revealed a large number of paralog gene pairs, which showed low synonymous sequence divergence. Among the potential hypothesis regarding the origin of these paralog gene pairs, the hypothesis of a 4R whole genome duplication is among the most parsimonious. Several of these duplicated genes were involved in reproduction and the onset of puberty. Regardless of the origin, further analysis of these genes may reveal eel specific adaptations, which could help to better understand the exceptional reproductive system of eels. / Rozenfeld, C. (2019). Development of innovative methods for induction of European eel (Anguilla anguilla) spermatogenesis [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/125697 / TESIS

The duplication of genes followed by selection is perhaps the most prominent way in which molecular biological systems gain multiplicity, diversity and functional complexity in evolution. Whole genome duplications (WGDs) therefore have the potential of generating an extraordinary amount of evolutionary innovation. It is now accepted that the vertebrate lineage has gone through two rounds of WGD in its early stages, after the divergence of invertebrate chordates and before the emergence of jawed vertebrates. These basal vertebrate WGDs are called 2R for two rounds of whole genome duplication. An additional WGD called 3R occurred early in the evolution of teleost fishes, before the radiation of this species-rich group. This thesis describes the evolution of several endocrine and neuronal gene families in relation to the vertebrate WGDs, through a comparative genomic approach including both phylogenetic analyses and chromosomal location data across a wide range of vertebrate taxa. These results show that numerous endocrine gene families have expanded in 2R and in several cases also in 3R. These include the gene families of oxytocin and vasopressin receptors (OT/VP-R), somatostatin receptors (SSTR) and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBP). For the OT/VP-R and SSTR families, previously undescribed subtypes were identified. The protein hormone family that includes growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL) and somatolactin (SL) acquired a new PRL gene in 2R, however the origins of GH, PRL and SL likely predate 2R. The corresponding family of receptors diversified during different time periods through a combination of local duplications and 3R. Neuronal gene families of the visual system have also expanded in 2R and 3R. The results presented here demonstrate that the vertebrate repertoire of visual opsin genes arose in 2R as part of chromosomal blocks that also include the OT/VP-R genes. The gene families including the transducin alpha, beta and gamma subunits also arose in 2R, hinting at the importance of these events in the diversification and specialization of phototransduction cascades for rods and cones. Thus, the whole genome duplications have been important contributors to the evolution of both vision and endocrine regulation in the vertebrates.