Introduction: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a significant public health concern, due to its association with short- and long-term complications in both mothers and offspring. DNA methylation and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) offer potential to serve as molecular biomarkers, which may lead to improved detection of GDM with positive effects on health outcomes. Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate whether DNA methylation and SNPs are associated with GDM and may offer potential as molecular biomarkers for GDM in South Africa (SA). Methods: This study followed a two-pronged approach. Firstly, literature searches were conducted to collate and synthesise all published articles reporting on the prevalence of GDM in SA, the screening and diagnostic strategies used, and the current status of DNA methylation and SNPs as biomarkers for GDM. Secondly, we conducted experiments to investigate global (n=201), genome-wide (n=24) and gene-specific DNA methylation (n=286) of the adiponectin gene (ADIPOQ) in whole blood of women with and without GDM, using an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, a methylationEPIC BeadChip Array and pyrosequencing, respectively. In addition, genotype and allele frequencies of ADIPOQ rs266729 and rs17300539, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) rs1801133 were determined, using quantitative real-time PCR (n=449) and DNA sequencing for validation. Results: The literature search showed that the prevalence of GDM in SA has increased over the years. Furthermore, it showed that the lack of uniformity in screening and diagnosis between and within countries hamper the accurate detection of GDM. Lastly, the literature search identified several studies that support the use of DNA methylation and SNPs as potential biomarkers for GDM. Experimentally, we showed no differences in global DNA methylation between GDM and non-GDM groups. Interestingly, global DNA methylation levels were 18% (p=0.012) higher in obese compared to non-obese pregnant women. Genome-wide methylation analysis identified 1046 differentially methylated CpG sites (associated with 939 genes) (Cut-off threshold: M>0.06 and p<0.01). Among the top five CpG sites identified, one CpG mapped to the calmodulin-binding transcription activator 1 (CAMTA1) gene, which has been shown to regulate insulin production and secretion. Two CpG sites (-3410: p=0.048 and -3400: p=0.004) in the ADIPOQ promoter were hypomethylated during GDM in HIV negative, but not in HIV positive women. Lastly, no association between the ADIPOQ and MTHFR polymorphisms and GDM was observed in our population. Conclusion: To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the association between DNA methylation or ADIPOQ (rs266729 and rs17300539) and MTHFR (rs1801133) polymorphisms and GDM in SA. Findings suggest that gene-specific, but not global methylation nor SNPs rs266729, rs17300539 and rs1801133, may offer potential as molecular biomarkers of GDM in this population. Future longitudinal studies in larger samples that include both HIV negative and positive pregnant women are warranted to explore the candidacy of DNA methylation as molecular biomarkers for GDM. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa, Thuthuka Grant (unique grant no. 99391). / South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) / Obstetrics and Gynaecology / PhD / Unrestricted

Background Overweight and obesity are global health problems with several adverse health effects that threaten public health. In Sweden, almost four of ten pregnant women are overweight or obese, conditions that are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, including gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), a metabolic disorder that complicates pregnancy. Globally, physical inactivity is the fourth leading risk factor for mortality. The recommendation for physical activity (i.e., ≥150 minutes/week) issued by the Professional Associations for Physical Activity and the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare is in line with the recommendations by the WHO. Physical activity during pregnancy is generally safe and beneficial for both the pregnant woman and her fetus and can maintain or improve fitness and may further improve pregnancy outcomes. However, pregnant women tend to lower their physical activity when entering pregnancy. Midwives working in antenatal care (ANC) in Sweden play a prominent role in promoting a healthy lifestyle through counselling pregnant women on lifestyle, including physical activity during pregnancy. Individual counselling on physical activity encourages pregnant women to maintain their pre-pregnant leisure time physical activity throughout their pregnancy. Aims This thesis has three main aims. First, this thesis investigated guidelines for screening of GDM, risk factors, and pregnancy outcomes in relation to GDM. Second, it investigated physical activity during pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes. Third, it explored midwives’ and pregnant women’s experiences with counselling that addressed physical activity during pregnancy. Methods Study I and III are cross-sectional studies using data from the Maternal Health Care Register and the Salut Register. A total of 184,183 pregnant women were included in Study I (2011-2012) and 3,868 in Study III (2011-2012). Several statistical analyses were used: two-independent samples t-test, Pearson’s Chi-Square test, and univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses. Study II and IV are qualitative studies applying qualitative content analysis. Study II included 41 midwives who were interviewed in eight focus group discussions (FGD). Study IV included 14 pregnant women who participated in individual in-depth interviews. Main findings There was no consensus in Sweden regarding clinical guidelines for screening regimes or 2-hour cut-off value for diagnosis of GDM from 2011 through 2012. Four screening regimes were applied in Sweden during this time period: A) universal screening with a 2-hour cut-off value of 10.0 mmol/L; B) selective screening with a 2-hour cut-off value of
8.9 mmol/L; C) selective screening with a 2-hour cut-off value of 10.0 mmol/L; and D) selective screening with
a 2-hour cut-off value of 12.2 mmol/L. The highest prevalence of GDM was found where selective screening was applied with a 2-hour cut-off value of 8.9 mmol/L. Unemployment, low educational level, and non-Nordic origin were all risk factors for GDM, and a BMI ≥30 kg/m2 almost four-doubled the risk for GDM compared to pregnant women with BMI &lt;30 kg/m2. Increasing OGTT-values were associated with increasing risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes (Paper I). Midwives in antenatal care perceived counselling as both challenging and as an opportunity to promote a healthy lifestyle for pregnant women. As the theme “An on-going individual adjustment” revealed, the midwives tried to adjust their counselling to each pregnant woman’s individual needs. Counselling pregnant women on physical activity was seen as complex and ambiguous with a risk of being rejected by the women if the advice was delivered too straightforward. Instead, the midwives were “tiptoeing” around the sensitive topics (Paper II). Almost half of pregnant women reported that they achieved the recommended level of physical activity during pregnancy (i.e., ≥150 minutes/week). These pregnant women were characterized by lower BMI, higher educational level, and very good or good self-rated health (SRH) compared to the pregnant women who did not achieve the recommended level (Paper III). Pregnant women reported a desire for individual counselling on physical activity during pregnancy. The theme that emerged was “Longing for fulfilment of individual needs and expectations”, which reflected the wish that midwives’ counselling on physical activity should be based on pregnant women’s individual needs instead of merely providing general advice. Some participants reported receiving encouragement and support, but others believed they were provided insufficient counselling on physical activity and that the midwife had her own agenda focusing mostly on medical surveillance (Paper IV). Conclusions No consensus regarding clinical guidelines and diagnostic criterion for GDM existed in Sweden during 2011 to 2012. Obesity was a strong risk factor for development of GDM, and low socio-economic status and non-Nordic origin were also demonstrated as significant risk factors. Positively, almost half of the pregnant women reached the recommended level of physical activity during pregnancy. Participants fulfilling the recommendation were characterized by lower BMI, higher education, and very good or good self-rated health. Midwives strived to adjust and individualize their counselling on physical activity; however, some of the pregnant women could experience the counselling on physical activity being too general. Clearly, healthcare professionals should encourage fertile and pregnant women to be physically active, especially overweight and obese pregnant women who report low levels of physical activity, in order to improve overall health in this population. / Bakgrund Övervikt och fetma är ett stort hälsoproblem globalt med flera negativa hälsoeffekter som utgör ett hot mot folkhälsan. Nästan 40% av de gravida i Sverige har övervikt eller fetma vilket är associerat med flera negativa graviditetsutfall där graviditetsdiabetes (GDM) är en metabolisk sjukdom som komplicerar graviditeten. Fysisk inaktivitet är den fjärde ledande riskfaktorn för dödlighet i ett globalt perspektiv. Att vara fysiskt aktiv förbättrar välbefinnandet och livskvaliteten, främjar stabil vikt, insulinkänslighet och normalt blodtryck. Vidare sänker fysisk aktivitet risken för diabetes mellitus typ 2, fetma och hjärt-och kärlsjukdomar. Fysisk aktivitet under en okomplicerad graviditet är generellt att betrakta som utan risk och ökar välbefinnandet för både kvinnan och fostret. Fysisk aktivitet bidrar till att bibehålla eller förbättra fysisk kondition och kan förbättra graviditetsutfall. Trots dessa fördelar tenderar gravida att sänka sin fysiska aktivitet under graviditeten. De svenska rekommendationerna följer de internationella riktlinjerna som innebär ≥150 minuter/vecka av måttlig fysisk aktivitet alternativt 75 minuter/vecka av intensiv fysisk aktivitet eller en kombination av dessa. Svenska barnmorskor som arbetar inom mödrahälsovården i Sverige har en central, rådgivande roll gentemot gravida kvinnor när det gäller att verka för en hälsosam livsstil inkluderande fysisk aktivitet. Individuell rådgivning i fysisk aktivitet kan uppmuntra och stödja gravida kvinnor att fortsätta vara fysiskt aktiva under hela graviditeten. Syfte Att kartlägga riktlinjer för graviditetsdiabetes i Sverige samt riskfaktorer och graviditetsutfall i relation till GDM. Vidare att undersöka fysisk aktivitet under graviditeten samt associationer till graviditetsutfall och slutligen att utforska barnmorskor och gravida kvinnors upplevelser av rådgivning i fysisk aktivitet. Metod Studie I och III var tvärsnittsstudier där data från Mödrahälsovårds-registret och Salutregistret nyttjades. Totalt 184,183 gravida kvinnor inkluderades i Studie I och 3,868 inkluderades i Studie III (tidsperiod 2011-2012). Statistiska analyser som genomfördes var t-test, Pearson’s Chi-2-test och univariat samt multivariat logistisk regressionsanalys. Studie II och IV var kvalitativa studier där intervjuerna analyserades med manifest och latent kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Studie II inkluderade 41 barnmorskor i åtta fokusgrupper och 14 gravida omföderskor djupintervjuades individuellt i Studie IV. Resultat Under perioden 2011-2012 förelåg inte någon enighet gällande riktlinjer för screening och gränsvärde för diagnosen GDM i Sveriges 43 mödrahälsovårdsområden. Fyra olika screeningregimer identifierades; A) generell screening och 2-timmar gränsvärde på 10,0 mmol/L i plasmaglukos, B) selektiv screening och 2-timmar gränsvärde på 8,9 mmol/L i plasmaglukos, C) selektiv screening och 2-timmar gränsvärde på 10,0 mmol/L i plasmaglukos och D) selektiv screening och 2-timmar gränsvärde på 12,2 mmol/L i plasmaglukos. Den högsta prevalensen av GDM återfanns i det område som hade 8,9 mmol/L som gränsvärde och den lägsta där 12,2 mmol/L var gränsvärdet för GDM. Arbetslöshet, låg utbildningsnivå och ett utom-nordiskt ursprung utgjorde alla riskfaktorer för utveckling av GDM. Fetma, BMI ≥30 kg/m2, utgjorde den riskfaktor med högst risk för att utveckla GDM under graviditet med en nästan fyrdubblad risk jämfört med en kvinna med BMI &lt;30kg/m2. Ökande 2-timmarsvärden av blodglukos var associerat med ökande negativa graviditetsutfall såsom kejsarsnitt och instrumentell vaginal förlossning (Artikel I). Barnmorskorna i mödrahälsovården upplevde rådgivningen i fysisk aktivitet som å ena sidan utmanande men å andra sidan som en möjlighet att verka för en hälsosam livsstil hos de gravida kvinnorna. Temat ”En ständigt pågående anpassning” visar barnmorskornas försök att anpassa sin rådgivning efter varje enskild gravid kvinnas behov och situation. Rådgivningen i fysisk aktivitet till gravida upplevdes som komplex och mångfacetterad. Det uttrycktes en oro för att bli avvisad av den gravida kvinnan om de givna råden förmedlades för uppriktigt. Detta ledde ibland till att barnmorskorna ”trippade på tå” och försiktigt närmade sig känsliga ämnen såsom övervikt och råd om fysisk aktivitet. Barnmorskorna försökte även finna individuella lösningar och anpassa råden utifrån varje enskild gravid kvinnas möjligheter. Detta var särskilt tydligt i mötet med kvinnor som immigrerat till Sverige, där barnmorskorna upplevde att en del av rådgivningen bestod i att slå hål på myter om fysisk aktivitet såsom något riskfyllt samt att informera om de positiva hälsoeffekterna med fysisk aktivitet under graviditeten (Artikel II). Nästan hälften av de gravida kvinnorna uppnådde Socialstyrelsens rekommendationer avseende fysisk aktivitet under graviditet och dessa kvinnor karakteriserades av lägre BMI, högre utbildningsnivå samt mycket bra/bra självskattad hälsa jämfört med de gravida som inte uppnådde rekommendationerna Artikel III). Temat som framkom i Artikel IV var ”Längtan efter tillfredsställelse av individuella behov och förväntningar” och speglar de gravidas önskan att erhålla en individuellt anpassad rådgivning i fysisk aktivitet av barnmorskorna istället för en generell rådgivning avsedd för alla. Några gravida hade erfarenheter av barnmorskan som stöttande och uppmuntrande i sin rådgivning i fysisk aktivitet. Andra kunde uppleva rådgivningen som otillräcklig, att barnmorskan exempelvis inte hade tillräckligt med kunskap i fysisk aktivitet samt att barnmorskan hade en egen agenda för deras möten som i huvudsak fokuserade på den medicinska övervakningen av graviditeten. Slutsats Under perioden 2011-2012 förelåg ingen consensus angående de nationella riktlinjerna och diagnostiska värdet för GDM i Sverige. Fetma var den riskfaktor med högst risk för utvecklande av GDM och låg socio-ekonomi, maternell ålder &gt;35 år samt utom-nordiskt ursprung utgjorde även riskfaktorer för GDM. Positivt var att nästan hälften av de gravida uppnådde Socialstyrelsens rekommendationer för fysisk aktivitet under graviditeten och dessa karakteriserades av signifikant lägre BMI, högre utbildningsnivå samt mycket god/god självskattad hälsa. Trots att barnmorskorna beskrev hur de strävade efter att anpassa rådgivningen i fysisk aktivitet till varje enskild kvinna, kunde de gravida kvinnorna uppleva att rådgivningen var otillräcklig, för generell och främst fokuserad på den medicinska övervakningen. Det är av största vikt att hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal som möter fertila och gravida kvinnor verkar för en hälsosam livsstil, särskilt avseende kvinnor med en inaktiv livsstil och de som har övervikt eller fetma för att på så sätt förbättra hälsan hos denna del av befolkningen. För att uppnå detta krävs resurser gällande personal, tidsutrymme samt fortbildning inom hälsa och rådgivning för barnmorskor och annan hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal som möter dessa kvinnor. Slutligen, för att möjliggöra rådgivning som avser att stödja fysisk aktivitet för de kvinnor som immigrerat till Sverige behövs mer kunskap och utbildning i mötet med dessa kvinnor.

O diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG) é o distúrbio metabólico mais comum da gravidez. A definição padrão do DMG consiste no metabolismo anormal da glicose diagnosticado pela primeira vez durante a gestação. Mulheres que têm história de DMG geralmente apresentam diabetes pós-parto, resistência à insulina, síndrome metabólica, hipertensão e dislipidemia. A detecção precoce deste estado metabólico anormal é importante para eventual intervenção na tentativa de impedir ou mesmo retardar o aparecimento dos outros tipos de diabetes. Alguns estudos têm apontado, em mulheres com DMG, indução de genes envolvidos com resposta imune, particularmente aqueles associados com inflamação. A identificação de genes de inflamação induzidos em gestantes com DMG tem fornecido a base para elucidar a ligação entre vias inflamatórias e DMG. Para testar esta hipótese foi realizada a comparação do perfil transcricional de células mononucleares de sangue periférico (PBMCs) de pacientes com DMG e controles. As amostras de RNA total foram hibridadas utilizando oligo microarrays Agilent ® 4 x 44 K englobando o genoma funcional humano total. Os mRNAs diferencialmente expressos foram identificados aplicando-se a análise de Rank Products, e posteriormente submetidos ao agrupamento hierárquico de Pearson por meio do software Cluster. Utilizando o programa TreeView, foi realizada a construção dos dendrogramas com as representações espaciais dos mRNAs, classificados de acordo com suas funções moleculares e vias biológicas. A partir do banco de dados DAVID, foram identificados 130 processos biológicos significantes (P<0.05) incluindo os de resposta imune e defesa, resposta inflamatória, regulação de citocinas, apoptose, desenvolvimento de vasos sanguíneos e proliferação celular. Entre as vias de maior relevância destacamos a via de interação entre receptores de citocinas e a de sinalização do receptor NOD-like, além das vias de câncer, lúpus e asma. Adicionalmente, encontramos os transcritos dos genes IGFBP2, TCF3, OLR1, TCF7L2, previamente associados a alterações metabólicas, diferencialmente expressos nas gestantes com DMG. Também observamos que genes do complexo principal de histocompatibilidade (MHC), HLA-DRB6, HLA-DQA2, HLA-DQB2, HLA-DQB1, HLA-DOA, apresentaram mRNAs induzidos nas pacientes com DMG. A partir deste estudo, constatamos que vias relacionadas ao sistema imunológico e categorias funcionais associadas à inflamação participam da patogenia do DMG. Além disso, evidenciamos que transcritos de genes que pertencem ao MHC e aqueles envolvidos em processos metabólicos, estiveram diferencialmente expressos no DMG. Estes resultados confirmam nossa hipótese inicial e contribuem para o melhor entendimento das bases genéticas desta doença. / Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is the most common metabolic disorder found during pregnancy. The standard definition of GDM is the abnormal glucose metabolism first diagnosed during pregnancy. Women who have a history of GDM usually present postpartum diabetes, insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, hypertension and dyslipidemia. Early detection of this abnormal metabolic status may permit early intervention to prevent or even delay the development of other types of diabetes. The induction of genes involved in immune response in women with GDM has been reported, particularly those associated with inflammatory pathways, providing basis proposing that inflammation genes might be associated to GDM. To test this hypothesis, we compared the transcriptome profiling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of GDM patients and controls. The total RNA samples were hybridized to Agilent ® 4 x 44 K oligo microarrays covering the whole human functional genome. Differentially expressed mRNAs were obtained by Rank Product analysis and then submitted to hierarchical clustering using the Cluster software . Dendrograms and spatial representations of mRNAs were constructed through the TreeView software . These mRNAs were classified according to their molecular functions and biological pathways using the DAVID database. We observed 130 significant biological processes (P<0.05), including immune and defense response, inflammatory response, regulation of cytokines, apoptosis, blood vessels development and cell proliferation. Among the most relevant pathways, we highlighted the interaction between cytokine receptors, NOD-like receptor signaling and cancer, lupus and asthma pathways. Additionally, we found transcripts of the genes IGFBP2, TCF3, OLR1, TCF7L2, which were previously associated with metabolic abnormalities, differentially expressed in pregnant women with GDM. Some major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes (HLA-DRB6, HLA-DQA2, HLA-DQB2, HLA-DQB1, HLA-DOA) also presented mRNAs induced in patients with GDM. In conclusion, we found that immunerelated pathways and functional categories associated with inflammation participate in the pathogenesis of DMG. Furthermore, we showed that transcripts of genes belonging to MHC and those involved in metabolic processes were differentially expressed in DMG. These results confirmed our initial hypothesis and contribute to a better understanding of the genetics basis of this disease.

Bakgrund: Graviditetsdiabetes är den vanligaste metabola sjukdomen hos gravida. Sjukdomen ökar drastiskt relaterat till ökat stillasittande. Åtgärder inkluderar kostråd, råd om fysisk aktivitet, stöd att förbättra levnadsvanor samt vid behov insulinbehandling. Trots att forskning visar att fysisk aktivitet har flera positiva effekter på graviditetsdiabetes är mindre än hälften av populationen så fysiskt aktiva som de rekommenderas vara. För att bättre kunna stötta dessa kvinnor i sitt fysiska aktivitetsbeteende behövs mer information om deras kunskap och utfallsförväntningar avseende fysisk aktivitet. Syfte: Att undersöka hur fysiskt aktiva gravida med graviditetsdiabetes är, vilken kunskap och vilka utfallsförväntningar de har avseende fysisk aktivitet vid graviditetsdiabetes samt undersöka eventuella samband mellan kunskap, utfallsförväntningar och fysisk aktivitetsnivå. Metod: Observationsstudie av icke experimentell design genomfördes med webbenkät skapad i Google Forms. Bekvämlighetsurval från specialistmödravården samt sluten Facebook-grupp. Resultat: Majoriteten ägnade mindre än 30 minuter åt fysisk träning en vanlig vecka, uppfyllde inte rekommendationerna för vardagsmotion samt var stillasittande hela dagen. Majoriteten av deltagarna hade mer än häften rätt på kunskapsfrågorna och var säkra på att fysisk aktivitet är hälsosamt. Korrelationsberäkningarna var inte statistiskt signifikanta. Slutsats: Deltagarna hade kunskaper och höga utfallsförväntningar avseende fysisk aktivitet men låg fysisk aktivitetsnivå. Ytterligare forskning krävs för att undersöka eventuell korrelation. / Background: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is the most common metabolic disease in pregnant women. GDM increases drastically related to sedentary behaviour. Treatment includes dietary advice, advice on physical activity and if necessary, insulin therapy. Objective: The purpose was to examine how physically active women with GDM are, their knowledge and outcome expectations on physical activity during GDM and whether there is any correlation between knowledge, outcome expectations and level of physical activity. Method: Observation study of non-experimental design was performed with a web-based questionnaire created in Google Forms. Study participants from Specialistmödravården at Akademiska sjukhuset Uppsala and a closed Facebook group. Results: The majority devoted less than 30 minutes to physical exercise a regular week, did not meet the recommendations for everyday exercise and were sedentary throughout the day. Most of the participants answered more than half of the questions correctly and were confident that physical activity is healthy. No significant correlations were found. Conclusion: The study participants had knowledge and high outcome expectations regarding physical activity, but their physical activity level was low. Further research on correlations is required.

A prática de atividade física durante a gestação está relacionada a controle de ganho de peso materno, redução de desenvolvimento de distúrbios metabólicos e síndromes hipertensivas. Está indicada também como intervenção importante no tratamento de Diabetes mellitus, distúrbio metabólico mais comum durante a gravidez. Para a orientação de um adequado programa de exercícios físicos durante o período gestacional, torna-se necessário o conhecimento do conjunto de atividades e do gasto energético de cada paciente durante este período da vida da mulher. O Objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar a taxa de atividade física durante o ciclo gravídico-puerperal e a influência do Índice de Massa Corporal (IMC) em mulheres com ou sem Diabetes Mellitus Gestacional (DMG). As pacientes foram estratificadas de acordo com presença ou ausência de diagnóstico de DMG e IMC pré- concepcional, resultando em quatro grupos com 66 participantes cada (grupo de gestação de risco habitual - GRH com IMC adequado, >=18,5 e <= 24,9 kg/m2, e IMC alterado, >= 25 kg/m e grupo com DMG com IMC adequado, >=18,5 e <= 24,9 kg/m2, e IMC alterado, >= 25 kg/m2). As pacientes selecionadas foram submetidas a análise socioeconômica e foi aplicada a versão validada para o português do Questionário de Atividade Física para Mulheres Grávidas-QAFMG (do inglês Pregnancy Physical Activity Questionnaire-PPAQ) para avaliação do nível de atividade física no período pré-gestacional, no terceiro trimestre da gestação e três meses após o parto, que foram expressos em Equivalente Metabólico da Tarefa (do inglês Metabolic Equivalent of Task-MET). Os resultados mostraram que classificaram-se como de etnia branca 54,55% das entrevistadas no grupo DMG - IMC 0; 63,10% no grupo DMG - IMC 1; 60,24% no grupo GRH- IMC 0; 53,25% no grupo GRH - IMC1; como donas de casa 49,35%; 54,76%; 62,65 e 53,25% nos respectivos grupos. Já em estado civil as porcentagens encontradas foram de 80,52%; 89,29%; 75,90% e 80,52%.A variável escolaridade mostrou que 63,03% das gestantes do grupo DMG de IMC 0, 65,48% das gestantes do grupo DMG - IMC 1, 75,90% das gestantes do 8 grupo GRH e IMC 0 e 72,73% das gestantes do grupo GRH e IMC 1 apresentava entre 8 e 11 anos de estudo. A classe econômica mais predominante em todos os grupos foi a C2 em que a renda familiar é de 1.446,24 reais. (DMG - IMC 0 = 40,26%; DMG - IMC 1 = 31,33%; GRH - IMC 0 = 43,90%; GRH - IMC 1 = 38,96%). Ao comparar as médias dos valores de MET´s encontrados na amostra, notou-se que os valores encontrados na avaliação três meses após o parto (representado pelo tempo 2) foram superiores a 1 (1,10 MET para grupo DMG de IMC adequado e 1,06 MET para IMC alterado e no grupo GRH 1,02 MET de IMC adequado e 1,07 MET de IMC alterado). Já nas análises pré-gestacional (tempo 0) e de terceiro trismestre (tempo 1), os valores foram inferiores a 1 MET. Concluiu-se que o nível de atividade física não foi influenciado pelo diagnóstico de DMG e nem pelo IMC pré- gestacional. No entanto, alterou-se de acordo com a evolução temporal, com aumento da atividade física no período pós-parto. / The practice of physical activity during pregnancy is related to the control of weight gain in the mother\'s part, and the reduced development of metabolic disorders and hypertensive syndromes. It is also indicated as an important intervention in the treatment of Diabetes mellitus, the most common metabolic disorder during pregnancy. In order to achieve an adequate program of physical exercises to be done during the gestational period, it becomes necessary the knowledge of a set of activities and the energy expenditure of each patient during this period of a woman\'s life. The goal of this study was to evaluate the rate of physical activity during the pregnancy- postpartum cycle and the influence of the Body Mass Index (BMI) in women with or without Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). Patients were stratified according to the presence or absence of the GDM diagnosis and their preconception BMI, resulting in four groups with 66 participants in each (group of gestational habitual risk - GHR with normal BMI >=18.5 and <= 24.9 kg/m², and with altered BMI, >= 25 kg/m² and group with GDM, with normal BMI, >=18.5 and <= 24.9 kg/m², and with altered BMI, >= 25 kg/m²). The selected patients were submitted to a socioeconomic analysis and to did the Portuguese-validated version of the Pregnancy Physical Activity Questionnaire (PPAQ) to assess the level of physical activity in the pregestational period, in the third trimester of gestation and three months postpartum, which were expressed in Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET). The results showed that 54.55% of the interviewees in the GDM - BMI 0 group; 63.10% GDM - BMI 1 group; 60.24% in the GHR-BMI 0 group; 53.25% no GHR - BMI 1 group; as housewives 49.35%; 54.76%; 62.65 and 53.25% in the respective groups. Already in civil status as percentages found were of 80.52%; 89.29%; 75.90% and 80.52%. The educational variable showed that 63.03% of the pregnant women in the GDM - BMI 0 group, 65.48% of the pregnant women in the GDM - BMI 1 group, 75.90% of the pregnant women in the GRH - BMI 0 group and 72.73% of the pregnant women in the GHR - BMI 1 group had between 8 and 11 years of study. The most predominant economic class in all groups for a C2 in which the family income is 1.446,24 reais. (GDM - BMI 0 = 40.26%, DMG - BMI 1 = 31.33%, GHR - BMI 0 = 43.90%, GHR - 10 BMI 1 = 38.96%). When comparing as mean values of METs found in the sample, it was observed that the values found in the evaluation three months after childbirth (represented by time 2) were higher than 1 (1.10 MET for adequate BMI of GDM group 1.06 MET for altered BMI and no GHR 1.02 MET for adequate BMI and 1.07 MET for altered BMI). In the pre-gestational analyses (time 0) and the third trimester (time 1), the values lower than 1 MET.It was concluded that the level of physical activity was not influenced by the diagnosis of GDM neither by the pre-gestational BMI. However, it changed according to a temporal development, with increased physical activity in the postpartum period.

Introdução: O exercício físico como parte do tratamento do diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG) pode ajudar na manutenção das concentrações da glicemia de jejum. Objetivos: Conduzir uma revisão sistemática, com metanálise de ensaios clínicos randomizados, para avaliar o efeito do exercício supervisionado e estruturado ou o efeito do aconselhamento de atividade física, em mulheres com DMG, e comparar ao pré-natal usual para o controle da glicemia. Métodos: Os estudos elegíveis foram identificados a partir das bases de dados MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus e SportDiscus até 4 de Junho de 2015. Os dados foram extraídos de ensaios clínicos randomizados que compararam o pré-natal usual ao pré-natal usual somado ao exercício supervisionado e estruturado (pelo menos uma vez na semana) ou ao aconselhamento de atividade física, pelas quais os valores de glicemia de jejum pré e pós-intervenção estavam disponíveis. A metanálise de efeitos randômicos foi conduzida para a diferença entre as médias pós-intervenção da glicemia de jejum. Resultados: Foram encontradas 664 publicações, nas quais 82 foram avaliadas pela elegibilidade e oito foram incluídas na análise final. O efeito total do exercício nas concentrações absolutas da glicemia de jejum não foi significativamente diferente (P = 0,11) comparado ao pré-natal usual. Entretanto, o aconselhamento de atividade física comparado ao pré-natal usual demonstrou uma redução significativa nas concentrações da glicemia de jejum (diferença da média ponderada -3,88 mg/dL, 95% CI-7,33 a -0,42; I2, 48%; P para heterogeneidade < 0,15). Conclusão: O exercício supervisionado ou o aconselhamento de atividade física em mulheres com DMG não foi significativamente diferente comparado ao pré-natal usual nas concentrações de glicemia de jejum. Visto que o pré-natal usual inclui algum tipo de recomendação de atividade física, estes resultados não são surpreendentes. O aconselhamento de atividade física com o pré-natal usual inclui modificações da dieta que podem motivar as mulheres com DMG a serem mais ativas e aderentes ao aconselhamento nutricional, enquanto que o exercício estruturado pode ser mais difícil de atingir. / Background: Exercise as part of the treatment for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) may help maintain fasting glucose concentrations. Objective: A systematic review with meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of weekly-supervised exercise or physical activity (PA) counseling in GDM women compared to standard care (SC) on glycemic control. Methods: Eligible trials were identified from MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus and SportDiscus up to 4 June 2015. Data were retrieved from randomized controlled trials comparing SC with SC plus weekly-supervised (at least once a week) prenatal exercise or PA counseling for which fasting blood glucose (FBG) values pre and post intervention were available. Random-effects meta-analysis was conducted for mean difference in FBG post exercise intervention. Results: Our search yielded 664 publications of which 82 were assessed for eligibility. Eight were analyzed and all were included in the meta-analysis. The overall effect of exercise on absolute FBG concentrations was not different (P=0.11) compared to SC. However, PA counseling versus SC showed a significant reduction in the absolute FBG concentrations (weighted mean difference -3.88 mg/dL, 95% CI-7.33 to -0.42; I2, 48%; P for heterogeneity<0.15). Conclusions: Supervised exercise or PA counseling in GDM women was not significantly different compared to SC on FBG concentrations. Since SC includes some type of PA recommendation, these results are not surprising. PA counseling with SC including dietary modifications may help motivate GDM women to be more active and adherent to nutrition advice, while structured exercise may be more difficult to achieve.

Diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG) é uma condição cada vez mais frequente na população, uma vez que os novos critérios adotados consideram menores valores de glicemia para diagnóstico e cada vez mais mulheres iniciam a gestação com excesso de peso, fator de risco para DMG. Cerca de 50% das mulheres que tiveram DMG irão desenvolver diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) entre 5 e 10 anos após o parto. Uma das intervenções utilizada para prevenção do DM2 é o aleitamento materno (AM). Entretanto, são escassas as informações sobre AM em mulheres que tiveram DMG. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste estudo é avaliar o aleitamento materno em mulheres que tiveram diabetes gestacional e os fatores associados à não iniciação. Trata-se de um estudo de coorte, com dados da linha de base e seguimento de um estudo maior, LINDA-Brasil, realizado nas cidades de Porto Alegre (RS), Pelotas (RS) e Fortaleza (CE), de março de 2013 a dezembro de 2016. Gestantes com DMG foram arroladas em serviços de pré-natal de alto risco. Foram coletados dados demográficos, sócio-econômicos, de estilo de vida e contato. O seguimento foi realizado por ligações telefônicas e foram coletadas informações do parto, dados do recém-nascido e amamentação. Essas ligações foram realizadas um mês após o recrutamento e dois meses após o parto. A descrição dos dados foi apresentada através de frequências relativas e absolutas ou média e desvio padrão. Análise de Regressão de Poisson foi utilizada para estimar o risco relativo de não ter iniciado aleitamento materno. Todas as participantes assinaram termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. Foram incluídas 2523 mulheres. A média de idade foi 31,3 (±6,3) anos, sendo a maioria branca (49,5%), com ensino médio completo (38,3%) e renda entre 1 e 2 salários mínimos (39,9%). Não ter amamentado o último bebê (RR = 3,82; IC95%: 1,86 – 7,84), fumo durante a gestação (RR = 2,09; IC95%: 1,17 – 3,75), bebê com problemas ao nascer (RR = 3,11; IC95%: 1,90 – 5,12), prematuridade (RR = 1,60; IC95%: 1,09 – 2,57), consumo de bebidas adoçadas (RR = 1,10; IC95%: 1,02 – 1,19) e não ter intenção de amamentar o bebê (RR = 4,75; IC95%: 1,92 – 11,72) foram relacionadas à não iniciação ao aleitamento materno. Experiências anteriores, problemas com o bebê e comportamento materno, como fumo na gestação, consumo de bebidas adoçadas e não ter intenção de amamentar são fatores associados à não iniciação ao aleitamento materno em mulheres que tiveram diabetes mellitus gestacional. / Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an increasingly frequent condition in the population, since the new criteria adopted consider lower values of glycemia for diagnosis, and more and more women are starting gestation with excess weight, a risk factor for GDM. About 50% of women who have GDM will develop type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) between 5 and 10 years after giving birth. One of the interventions used to prevent DM2 is breastfeeding. However, there is little information on AM in women who have GDM. Therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate breastfeeding in women who had gestational diabetes and factors associated with non-initiation. This is a cohort study, with baseline data and follow-up of a larger study, LINDA-Brasil, conducted in the cities of Porto Alegre (RS), Pelotas (RS) and Fortaleza (CE), March 2013 To December 2016. Pregnant women with DMG were enrolled in high-risk prenatal services. Demographic, socio-economic, lifestyle and contact data were collected. Follow-up was performed by telephone calls and information was collected on birth, newborn data and breastfeeding. These calls were made one month after enrollment and 2 months after delivery. The data description was presented through relative and absolute frequencies or mean and standard deviation. Poisson regression analysis was used to estimate the relative risk of not having started breastfeeding. All participants signed a free and informed consent form. A total of 2523 women were included. The mean age was 31.3 (± 6.3) years, the majority of whom were white (49.5%), with a high school education (38.3%) and income between 1 and 2 minimum wages (39.9% ). Not having breastfed the last baby (RR = 3.82, 95% CI: 1.86 - 7.84), smoking during pregnancy (RR = 2.09, 95% CI: 1.17 - 3.75), baby with (RR = 3.11, 95% CI: 1.90 - 5.12), prematurity (RR = 1.60, 95% CI: 1.09 - 2.57), consumption of sweetened beverages (RR = 1 , 10; 95% CI: 1.02 - 1.19) and did not intend to breastfeed the baby (RR = 4.75, 95% CI: 1.92 - 11.72) were related to non - initiation to breastfeeding. Previous experiences, problems with the baby and maternal behavior, such as smoking during pregnancy, consumption of sweetened beverages and no intention to breastfeed are factors associated with not initiating breastfeeding in women who have had gestational diabetes mellitus.

No description available.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an increasing problem in the U.S. Many comorbidities are associated with GDM: increased risk for type 2 diabetes, neonatal hypoglycemia and fetal malformation. Healthcare organizations develop GDM educational programs to provide women with knowledge and skills to manage GDM and reduce health risks. While there are significant benefits to attending GDM educational programs, attendance rates are low. Little research has been conducted to determine reasons for low attendance in GDM educational programs. The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of women with GDM and to describe factors influencing GDM educational program attendance. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with GDM program participants at a large hospital in central Kentucky. The sample size was N=21. Results indicated that meal management changes and blood glucose monitoring characterized the GDM experience and many attended the educational program to receive information on these topics. Few participants reported barriers to attendance. The majority was satisfied with information received. Motivators to attendance included flexibility, location, and support of family members.. Participants preferred face-to-face meetings although some expressed a need for online classes and communication via text messaging. Participants expressed the need for GDM information postpartum.

Introdução: O exercício físico como parte do tratamento do diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG) pode ajudar na manutenção das concentrações da glicemia de jejum. Objetivos: Conduzir uma revisão sistemática, com metanálise de ensaios clínicos randomizados, para avaliar o efeito do exercício supervisionado e estruturado ou o efeito do aconselhamento de atividade física, em mulheres com DMG, e comparar ao pré-natal usual para o controle da glicemia. Métodos: Os estudos elegíveis foram identificados a partir das bases de dados MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus e SportDiscus até 4 de Junho de 2015. Os dados foram extraídos de ensaios clínicos randomizados que compararam o pré-natal usual ao pré-natal usual somado ao exercício supervisionado e estruturado (pelo menos uma vez na semana) ou ao aconselhamento de atividade física, pelas quais os valores de glicemia de jejum pré e pós-intervenção estavam disponíveis. A metanálise de efeitos randômicos foi conduzida para a diferença entre as médias pós-intervenção da glicemia de jejum. Resultados: Foram encontradas 664 publicações, nas quais 82 foram avaliadas pela elegibilidade e oito foram incluídas na análise final. O efeito total do exercício nas concentrações absolutas da glicemia de jejum não foi significativamente diferente (P = 0,11) comparado ao pré-natal usual. Entretanto, o aconselhamento de atividade física comparado ao pré-natal usual demonstrou uma redução significativa nas concentrações da glicemia de jejum (diferença da média ponderada -3,88 mg/dL, 95% CI-7,33 a -0,42; I2, 48%; P para heterogeneidade < 0,15). Conclusão: O exercício supervisionado ou o aconselhamento de atividade física em mulheres com DMG não foi significativamente diferente comparado ao pré-natal usual nas concentrações de glicemia de jejum. Visto que o pré-natal usual inclui algum tipo de recomendação de atividade física, estes resultados não são surpreendentes. O aconselhamento de atividade física com o pré-natal usual inclui modificações da dieta que podem motivar as mulheres com DMG a serem mais ativas e aderentes ao aconselhamento nutricional, enquanto que o exercício estruturado pode ser mais difícil de atingir. / Background: Exercise as part of the treatment for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) may help maintain fasting glucose concentrations. Objective: A systematic review with meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of weekly-supervised exercise or physical activity (PA) counseling in GDM women compared to standard care (SC) on glycemic control. Methods: Eligible trials were identified from MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus and SportDiscus up to 4 June 2015. Data were retrieved from randomized controlled trials comparing SC with SC plus weekly-supervised (at least once a week) prenatal exercise or PA counseling for which fasting blood glucose (FBG) values pre and post intervention were available. Random-effects meta-analysis was conducted for mean difference in FBG post exercise intervention. Results: Our search yielded 664 publications of which 82 were assessed for eligibility. Eight were analyzed and all were included in the meta-analysis. The overall effect of exercise on absolute FBG concentrations was not different (P=0.11) compared to SC. However, PA counseling versus SC showed a significant reduction in the absolute FBG concentrations (weighted mean difference -3.88 mg/dL, 95% CI-7.33 to -0.42; I2, 48%; P for heterogeneity<0.15). Conclusions: Supervised exercise or PA counseling in GDM women was not significantly different compared to SC on FBG concentrations. Since SC includes some type of PA recommendation, these results are not surprising. PA counseling with SC including dietary modifications may help motivate GDM women to be more active and adherent to nutrition advice, while structured exercise may be more difficult to achieve.