The focus of this thesis is to develop a simulation model for predicting ductile fractures during hot working at Alleima. The main fracture mechanism in these conditions is ductile fracture by void coalescence. The ductile fractures are caused by the linking of voids that appear when there is large plastic deformation near second-phase particles. The chosen method to simulate these was to use a Ductile Fracture Criterion (DFC), which builds on using FE models with a damage parameter. Two criteria were selected to be tested. The austenitic stainless-steel alloy 316L was selected as material for this work. Using the Gleeble 3500 system, hot tension and compression experiments were performed to gather data needed for the simulation models as well as inducing ductile fractures. Rupture occurred for all the hot tension samples and cracks were found for only one of the hot compression experiments. Using data from the Gleeble tests, a separate simulation model for each of the setups were created using the finite element software Marc/Mentat. A flow stress model for 316L was developed. Results from the simulations show that both selected DFCs can be used to predict ductile fractures. Particularly for hot tension. It was shown that it is important to model the temperature gradient in the sample accurately. For hot compression, it was difficult to conclude if the criterions were able to predict fracture since only one data point was available. The thesis concludes that there could be of interest with continued work using DFCs at Alleima.

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Thermomechanical processes such as hot rolling have been used in the industry for a long time to process and shape metals to a desired form with specific properties. However it can be difficult to make changes to the different process parameters. That's where it is beneficial to use a hot deformation simulator such as the Gleeble 3800-GTC. It can be used to test metals in a controlled environment where the deformation, temperature and other parameters are easily changed. When the machine uses a Hydrawedge module, it is able to simulate hot rolling using uniaxial compression at high temperatures. Swerim AB has one such machine and has requested to investigate what occurs inside a specimen during testing in the Gleeble, specifically inside two low-alloyed steels with a hardness between 400 and 500 HV. Such tests were replicated using LS-DYNA, an FE software. The goal was to acquire true stress-strain graphs that showed similar behaviour to the data from the Gleeble and plots of the effective plastic strain which could be correlated to the grain structure pattern inside the deformed cylinders. An FE-model was created which replicates the procedure. The model was verified through numerous steps. An initial mesh verification was done where the simulation time took at least 5 hours and at most 86 hours. Using a technique called mass scaling, the elements inside the model were manipulated using additional mass to increase their time step and reduce the computational time. A verification of the mass scaling was done where the computational time was weighed off against accuracy. Afterwards the friction had to be verified where it was found that the Gleeble test specimens were deformed more than necessary which was taken into account and the models were adjusted for friction verification. After all was said and done, the model had a reasonable friction coefficient with an optimal mesh and mass scaling configuration. The resulting model simulated a test of 0.5 seconds in 15 minutes and only costing at most 10 MPa in accuracy when experimental results have maximum values between 110 to 220 MPa depending on the scenario. This equals an approximate error of around 5-10%. When investigating the grain structure after 100 seconds of relaxation, the computational time amounted to 52 hours but could be reduced to 12 hours when simulating 30 seconds as there was no change in the effective plastic strain after that time. The final model has a high enough accuracy which, when combined with the Gleeble, is able to confirm material models and describe what occurs in the material during conditions akin to hot rolling.

More complex and bigger structures have increased the applicability of low alloy high strength steels due to weight and cost reductions in these projects. One of the requirements for the use of these materials is the preservation of performance after welding. Meanwhile, the norms on which the Welding Procedures Specifications (WPS) are based have not yet considered the development of modern steel and its new production process, resulting in unnecessary welding costs that diminish the profits of the application of this type of steel. This thesis aimed to develop and evaluate an experimental methodology to guide the creation and control of welding procedures for structural steel through a microstructural atlas of the heat affected zone (HAZ) in a thermomechanical control process (TMCP), 65 ksi steel (ASTM A572 Grade 65). This steel was used in the project of an industrial building for CBMM in Araxá, Minas Gerais, Brazil. It is proposed that through a microstructural atlas of a given steel, it is possible to determine the range of cooling rates that the steel may suffer during welding without affecting mechanical properties and without risking cold cracks. When comparing the microstructure of steel welds performed in field conditions, it is possible to determine the heat input range for a given process in the preparation of a WPS. The selected case study is from a high strength low alloy class 65 ksi steel (ASTM A572 Grade 65) that was used in the structure of an industrial building. The steel was produced using TMCP. The atlas was created via the construction of a continuous cooling transformation diagram using physical simulation (dilatometer and Gleeble) of the coarse grain HAZ (GCHAZ). The characterization of the simulated region was performed by metallography and mechanical tests. The microstructure of real welds made by a qualified WPS were compared to the atlas in order to certify the correct use of parameters and to validate the method. The methodology was also qualified and the potential economic benefits were quantified (based only on the reduction of consumables used and the increased availability of the welding process machine) for the selected industrial project. The mapped microstructures varied from martensite (at high cooling rates) to pearlite/ferrite with large grain size (at low cooling rates). There was remarkable prevalence of bainitic microstructure in a wide range of cooling rates, consistent with the chemical composition of the steel studied. Comparisons with real weld microstructures showed the atlas is compatible with them, and that it can more accurately describe the effective thermal cycle xi that occurs in the coarse grain region of the HAZ (other regions were not included). The application of this methodology in the development of new WPS would allow greater flexibility in the welding procedures, including welding without preheating. In this respect alone, it was possible to forecast savings of approximately R$200,000.00, 1,000 hours of processing and 172 tonnes of carbon equivalent emissions. / Estruturas cada vez mais complexas e de maiores dimensões vêm aumentando a aplicabilidade de aços de baixa liga e alta resistência, devido à redução de peso e custo dessas estruturas. Um dos requisitos para o uso desses materiais é a manutenção do desempenho após soldagem. Entretanto, as normas em que se baseiam as Especificações de Procedimentos de Soldagem (EPS) ainda não consideram aços mais modernos em termos de rota de fabricação, o que pode fazer com que custos desnecessários de soldagem minimizem os ganhos da aplicação desses aços. Este trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento e avaliação de uma metodologia para, experimentalmente, orientar a elaboração e o controle da aplicação de procedimentos de soldagem para aços estruturais, através de atlas microestrutural de regiões da zona afetada pelo calor (ZAC). Propõe-se que, através de um atlas microestrutural de um dado aço, seja possível determinar a faixa otimizada de energia de soldagem para um dado processo na elaboração e aplicação da EPS e, consequentemente, as velocidades de resfriamento que o aço possa sofrer durante a soldagem, sem perder as propriedades mecânicas e sem colocálo em risco quanto a trincas a frio. Tomou-se como estudo de caso o aço produzido por laminação controlada de classe de resistência de 65 ksi (ASTM A572 Grau 65), utilizado em um projeto de um prédio industrial na empresa CBMM. Trata-se de um aço fabricado pelo processo TMCP com resfriamento acelerado. A elaboração do Atlas se deu através da construção de um diagrama CCT, por simulação física (dilatômetro e Gleeble), da região de grãos grosseiros da zona afetada pelo calor (ZAC GG). Foram feitas caracterizações metalográficas e mecânicas das regiões simuladas. Microestruturas de soldas realizadas com EPS qualificadas foram comparadas com as do Atlas para se certificar da adequabilidade dos parâmetros utilizados e validação da abordagem. Foram realizadas ainda a qualificação e quantificação de potenciais benefícios econômicos no citado projeto industrial, obtidos pelo uso desta metodologia. As microestruturas apresentadas no mapa variavam de martensíta, para altas taxas de resfriamento, até perlita/ferrita de tamanho de grão elevado, para baixas taxas de resfriamento. Observou-se notável predominância da microestrutura bainítica em uma larga faixa de taxas de resfriamento, compatível com as propriedades e composição do aço estudado (alta soldabilidade). As comparações com as microestruturas de soldas reais mostraram que o Atlas pode descrever de forma precisa o ciclo térmico efetivamente imposto ix na ZAC GG. Concluiu-se que a aplicação desta metodologia na elaboração de novas EPS permitiria uma maior flexibilidade nos procedimentos de soldagem, admitindo inclusive soldagem sem pré-aquecimento. Em relação a não necessidade de pré-aquecimento, podese prever uma economia significante de custos e redução de emissão de gases que provocam efeito estufa. / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica