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Electromigration (EM) remains a major reliability concern for on-chip Cu interconnects due to the continuing scaling and the introduction of new materials and processes. In Cu interconnects, the atomic diffusion along the Cu/SiCN cap interface dominates the mass transport and thus controls EM reliability. The EM lifetime degrades by half for each new generation due to the scaling of the critical void volume which induces the EM failure. To improve the EM performance, a metal cap such as CoWP was applied to the Cu surface to suppress the interfacial diffusion. By this approach, two orders of magnitude improvement in the EM lifetime was demonstrated. For Cu lines narrower than 90 nm, the Cu grain structure degraded from bamboo-like grains to polycrystalline grains due to the insufficient grain growth in the trench. Such a change in Cu grain structures can increase the mass transport through grain boundaries and thus degrade the EM performance. The objective of this study is to investigate the scaling effect on EM lifetime and Cu microstructure, and more importantly, the grain structure effect on EM behaviors of Cu interconnects with the CoWP cap compared to those with the SiCN cap only. This thesis is organized into three parts. In the first part, the effect of via scaling on EM reliability was studied by examining two types of specially designed test structures. The EM lifetime degraded with the via size scaling because the critical void size that causes the EM failure is the same with the via size. The line scaling effect on Cu grain structures were identified by examining Cu lines down to 60 nm in width using both plan-view and cross-sectional view transmission electron microscopy. In the second part, the effect of grain structure was investigated by examining the EM lifetime, statistics and failure modes for Cu interconnects with different caps. A more significant effect of the grain structure on EM characteristics was observed for the CoWP cap compared to the SiCN cap. For the CoWP cap, the grain structure not only affected the mass transport rate along the Cu line, but also impacted the flux divergence site distribution which determined the voiding location and the lifetime statistics. Finally, the effect of grain structure on EM characteristics of CoWP capped Cu interconnects was examined using a microstructure-based statistical model. In this model, the microstructure of Cu interconnects was simplified as cluster and bamboo grains connected in series. Based on the weakest-link approximation, it was shown that the EM lifetime and statistics could be adequately modeled by combining the measured cluster length distribution with the EM lifetime-cluster length correlation for each individual failure unit. / text

Manufacturing processes are getting more and more complex with increasing demands of advanced and light weight engineering components, especially in aerospace industry. The global requirements on lower fuel consumption and emissions are increasing the demands in lowering weight of cast components. Ability to produce components in lower wall thickness will not only help to reduce the cost of production but also help to improve the efficiency of engineering systems resulting in lower fuel consumption and lesser environmental hazardous emissions. In order to produce thin-walled components, understanding of mechanism behind fluidity as it is effected by casting parameters is very important. Similarly, for complex components study of solidification morphology and its effects on castability is important to understand. The aim of this work was to investigate casting of thin-walled test geometries (less than 2mm) in aero-space grades of alloys. The casting trials were performed to investigate the fluidity as a function of casting parameters and filling system in thin-walled sections. Test geometries with different thickness were cast and evaluated in terms of filled area with respect to casting parameters, ı.e. casting temperature and shell preheat temperature. Different feeding systems were investigated to evaluate effects of filling mode on castability. Similarly for complex components where geometries are very organic in shape, solidification morphology effects the quality of castings. Process parameters, that effect the solidification morphology were identified and evaluated. In order to develop a relation between defect formation and process parameters, solidification behaviour was investigated using simulations and casting trials. Similarly the effect of factors that influence grain structure and flow related defects were studied. It was observed that fluidity is affected by the mode of geometry filling in investment casting process. The filling mode also have different effect on defect formation. A top-gated configuration is strongly affected by casting parameters where as a bottom-gated configuration is more stable and thus fluidity is not significantly affected by variation in casting parameters. Less porosity and flow-related defects were observed in the bottom-gated system as compared to top-gated system. In the study about casting defects as affected by process parameters, it was observed that shell thickness is important to avoid interdendritic shrinkage. It was observed that the increased shell thickness induces a steeper thermal gradient which is essential in order to minimize the width of the mushy zone. It was also observed that a slower cooling rate along with a steeper thermal gradient at the metal-mould interface not only helps to avoid shrinkage porosity but also increases fill-ability in thinner sections. The work presented here is focused on the optimization of process parameters, in order, for instance, to improve castability and reduce the casting defects in investment casting process. The work, however, does not focus on externally influencing the casting conditions or modifying the casting/manufacturing process. The future work towards PhD will be focused on externally improving the casting conditions and investigating other possible route of manufacturing for thin, complex components.

Hot tearing is a common and severe defect encountered in alloy castings and perhaps the pivotal issue defining an alloy's castability. Once it occurs, the casting has to be repaired or scraped, resulting in significant loss. Over the years many theories and models have been proposed and accordingly many tests have been developed. Unfortunately many of the tests that have been proposed are qualitative in nature; meanwhile, many of the prediction models are not satisfactory as they lack quantitative information, data and knowledge base. The need exists for a reliable and robust quantitative test to evaluate/characterize hot tearing in cast alloys. This work focused on developing an advanced test method and using it to study hot tearing in cast aluminum alloys. The objectives were to: 1) develop a reliable experimental methodology/setup to quantitatively measure and characterize hot tearing; and 2) quantify the mechanistic contributions of the process variables and investigate their effects on hot tearing tendency. The team at MPI in USA and CANMET-MTL in Canada has collaborated and developed such a testing setup. It consists mainly of a constrained rod mold and the load/displacement and temperature measuring system, which gives quantitative, simultaneous measurements of the real-time contraction force/displacement and temperature during solidification of casting. The data provide information about hot tearing formation and solidification characteristics, from which their quantitative relations are derived. Quantitative information such as tensile coherency, incipient crack refilling, crack initiation and propagation can be obtained. The method proves to be repeatable and reliable and has been used for studying the effects of various parameters (mold temperature, pouring temperature and grain refinement) on hot tearing of different cast aluminum alloys. In scientific sense this method can be used to study and reveal the nature of the hot tearing, for industry practice it provides a tool for production control. Moreover, the quantitative data and fundamental knowledge gained in this thesis can be used for validating and improving the existing hot tearing models.

In past years, legislative pressures (particularly in Japan and Europe) had forced the electronics industry to eliminate Pb from their end products and manufacturing processes. With respect to factors such as ease of converting existing tin-lead plating systems, ease of manufacture and compatibility with existing assembly methods, pure tin plating is seen by many in the industry as a potentially simple and cost effective alternative to SnPb-based systems. The problem of spontaneous tin whisker formation, a characteristic of pure tin, still needs to be addressed, as it can lead to device failure by shorting two terminals on electronic devices. This possibility gives rise to major reliability concerns. The study relates to an electronic component with pure tin deposit layer on the part for electric connection, wherein pure tin deposit layer is a fine grained tin deposit layer composed of grains with smaller size in the direction perpendicular to the deposit surface than in the direction parallel to the deposit surface. It is called irregular tin grain structure. It applies a process for plating an electronic component, so as to form a pure tin deposit layer on the part for electric connection, comprising the steps of: adjusting the composition of tin plating solution in which starter additive and brighter additive are included; moving the electronic component through the tin plating solution, so as to form a fine grained tin deposit layer on the part for electric connection. We performed a DoE by depositing different tin grain structures with variant thickness. After whisker test in high temperature/high humidity and room condition, we confirmed corrosion mechanism, intermetallic morphology, and different behaviour of tin atoms. To summarize the studies, as compared with the prior arts, irregular grain structure can validly inhibit the whisker growth.

L'objectif de ce travail est d'approfondir et de mieux comprendre les mécanismes responsables de la formation et de la croissance de la structure des grains dans le silicium multicristallin pour des applications photovoltaïques. Lors de la solidification du silicium multicristallin, la sélection des grains, le contrôle de la distribution de leur taille et leur direction de croissance sont des paramètres importants pour obtenir un matériau de bonne qualité et homogène. Ces paramètres influencent directement le rendement de conversion des cellules photovoltaïques, au travers de la capture et de la recombinaison des porteurs de charges et des interactions avec les impuretés. La structure de grains dans le silicium photovoltaïque évolue au cours de la solidification : des grains vont disparaître, d'autres vont apparaître, d'autres vont grossir pour donner au final une structure composée de gros grains, de petits grains dénommés ‘grits', de joints de grains, et de macles. Il est donc important de comprendre les relations entre les différents paramètres du procédé industriel et leur influence sur les phénomènes physico-chimiques qui se produisent lors de la croissance afin de pouvoir influer sur la structure de grains dans le silicium, et de prévoir ses propriétés. Dans une première étape, nous avons établi un modèle de développement des grains basé sur le type de croissance (facettée, rugueuse ou mixte), la cinétique de ces divers types de croissances, le phénomène de maclage et la sélection des grains, dont nous montrons qu'ils sont, avec la germination initiale, à l'origine de la taille et de la structure des grains. Ensuite, nous proposons une approche de modélisation numérique de l'évolution de la structure des grains au cours de la solidification. Cette méthode se base sur l'analyse dynamique bidimensionnelle du joint de grains au niveau de la ligne triple grain-grain-liquide (rugueuse, facettée) tout en prenant en compte les phénomènes produits à l'échelle macroscopique (le champ de température local) et microscopique (la cinétique des grains). Le modèle résulte du couplage thermique et des mécanismes cinétiques de croissance. Nous avons donc développé un modèle numérique de croissance des grains en 2 dimensions et nous l'avons introduit dans le code 2D-MiMSiS qui se déroule en 2 étapes : Premièrement, le calcul en régime transitoire de la solidification macroscopique d'un lingot de silicium nous permet d'obtenir le champ thermique dans le lingot et la position précise de l'interface solide-liquide à différents instants ainsi que sa vitesse, son orientation (sa forme) et les gradients de température dans le liquide et le solide. Deuxièmement, la modélisation de la croissance est basée sur la description géométrique des joints de grains qui dépend de la cinétique des grains qui les bordent. Elle suit des critères dépendants de la morphologie (rugueuse ou facettée) de l'interface. Elle s‘appuie sur le réseau d'isothermes du calcul thermique sans l'influencer dans un premier temps. Un des objectifs de ce modèle est de faire varier différents paramètres du procédé et d'en mesurer l'impact sur la structure cristalline finale. Des résultats de calculs 2D sont présentés et discutés par rapport à l'expérience. / The objective of this work is to explore and better understand the mechanisms responsible for the formation and growth of the grain structure in polycrystalline silicon for photovoltaic applications. During the solidification of polycrystalline silicon for the selection of the grain, control the distribution of their size and direction of growth are important parameters to obtain a material of good quality and homogeneous. These parameters directly influence the conversion efficiency of solar cells, through the capture and recombination of charge carriers and interactions with impurities. Grain structure in silicon photovoltaic evolves during solidification: Grain will disappear, others will appear, others will grow to give the final structure composed of large grains, small grains called 'grits' grain boundaries and twins. It is therefore important to understand the relationship between the parameters of the industrial process, the physico-chemical phenomena that occur during the growth and structure of grains in the silicon to predict its properties. In a first step, we established a model of development based on the grain growth type (faceted, rough or mixed), the kinetics of the various growths, the phenomenon of twinning and the selection of grains, we show that they are, with the initial germination, originally of the size and structure of the grains. Then, we propose an approach to numerical modeling of the evolution of lala grain structure during solidification. This method is based on the two-dimensional dynamic analysis of the grain boundary at the triple line grain-grain-liquid (rough, faceted) taking into account the phenomena produced at the macroscopic scale (the local temperature field) and microscopic (kinetic grain). The resulting model of the thermal coupling mechanisms and growth kinetics. We have developed a numerical model of grain growth in two dimensions, and we have introduced in the 2D-code MiMSiS which takes place in two steps: First, the calculation of transient macroscopic solidification of an ingot of silicon allows us to obtain the temperature field in the ingot and the precise position of the solid-liquid interface at different times as well as its speed, direction ( form) and the thermal gradients in the liquid and the solid. Second, the growth model is based on the geometrical description of grain boundary which depends on the kinetics of grain that border. It follows dependent criteria of the rough morphology or faceted interface. It relies on a network of insulated thermal calculation without influence in the first place. One objective of this model is to vary the process parameters and to measure their impact on the final crystalline structure. 2D calculation results are presented and discussed in relation to the experience.

This thesis deals with the influence of grain refinement by ECAP on fatigue properties of magnesium alloy AZ 91. Tensile and fatigue tests were made on the as-cast state samples and samples after ECAP process. Metallographic analysis of the microstructure and fractographic analysis of the fracture surfaces was performed.

La formation de la structure de grains dans les métaux pendant la solidification est déterminante pour les propriétés mécaniques et électroniques des pièces coulées. En plus de la texture donnée au matériau, la germination et la croissance des grains sont liées en particulier avec la formation des phases thermodynamiques et les inhomogénéités en composition d'éléments d'alliage. La structure de grains est rarement modélisée à l'échelle macroscopique, d'autant plus que l'approximation 2D est très souvent injustifiée. Dans ces travaux, la germination et la croissance de chaque grain individuel sont suivies avec un modèle macroscopique 3D CAFE. La microstructure interne des grains n'est pas explicitement résolue. Pour valider les approximations faites sur cette microstructure, une comparaison directe avec un modèle microscopique "champ de phase" a été réalisée. Celle-ci a permis de valider les hypothèses de construction du modèle CAFE, de mettre en avant le lien entre données calculées par les modèles microscopiques et paramètres d'entrée des modèles à plus grande échelle, et les domaines de validité de chaque modèle. Dans un deuxième temps, un couplage avec la ségrégation chimique et les bases de données thermodynamiques a été mise en place et appliquée sur un alliage binaire étain-plomb. Une expérience de macroségrégation par convection naturelle a été simulée. L'accord entre les courbes de température expérimentales et simulées atteint une précision de l'ordre de 1K, et la recalescence est correctement prédite. Les cartes de compositions sont comparables qualitativement, ainsi que la structure de grains. Les avantages du suivi de la structure ont été mis en évidence par rapport à une simulation par éléments finis classique. De plus, il a été montré que le calcul 3D était ici indispensable. Enfin, une implémentation parallèle optimisée du code a permis d'appliquer le modèle CAFE à un lingot de silicium polycristallin industriel de dimensions 0,192 x 0,192 x 2,08m, avec une taille de cellules de 250µm. Au total, 4,9 milliards de cellules sont représentées sur le domaine, et la germination et la croissance de 1,6 million de grains sont suivies. / Grain structure formation during solidification of metal parts has a big impact on the final mechanical and electronic properties. Besides determining the crystallographic texture, the nucleation and growth of grains are linked and interact with the appearance of thermodynamic phases and inhomogeneities in the alloy's chemical elements distribution. Grain structure is very rarely modeled on the macro scale, especially because the 2D approximation is often not justified. In this work, the nucleation and growth of each individual grain is tracked with the 3D CAFE macroscopic model. The internal microscopic structure is not explicitly solved. In order to validate the assumptions concerning this microstructure, a direct comparison has been done with a microscopic "phase field" model. That comparison led to the validation of some of the hypothesis on which the CAFE model is built. Moreover, the various data computed in microscopic models that can be used as input parameters of the macroscopic models have been identified, and the limits of each model clearly shown. Secondly, coupling with macrosegregation and thermodynamic databases was achieved, and applied to a binary tin-lead alloy. An experiment featuring macrosegregation induced by natural convection was modeled. The agreement between the experimental and the predicted cooling curves is within 1K, and the recalescence is found to be correctly predicted. The composition maps and the grain structure agree qualitatively with the experiment. The improvement due to structure tracking was demonstrated, regarding a standard finite elements resolution. It was also shown that the 3D simulation is mandatory to reach a good description. Finally, the model was implemented through an optimized parallel algorithm. This permitted to apply the CAFE model on an industrial scale polycrystalline silicon ingot, which dimensions are 0,192 x 0,192 x 2,08m. The cell size is chosen to be 250µm. In total, 4,9 billions of cells were represented, and the nucleation and growth of 1,6 million of grains were tracked.

Beton wird global als Werkstoff eingesetzt, weist als Natur-verwendendetes Material allerdings unterschiedliche regionale Spezifikationen auf. Hier entsteht ein Spannungsfeld zwischen Universalismus und Partikularismus. Die beim Absäuern offengelegten Sandkörner werden zum ortsbezogenen Naturpigment, die diese Ambivalenz sinnlich erfahrbar machen. Die Werkgruppe präsentiert in ihrer Uniformität ein Bild der Gemeinsam- und Verbundenheit. Gleichzeitig erheben die einzelnen Platten Anspruch auf spezifische, in ihrer Körnung auf partikularer Ebene abgebildete Eigenschaften der Diversität und Einzigartigkeit.