<p>The purpose of this study was to investigate the various types of onsite greywater treatment facilities available at two housing communities (Hull Street and Moshoeshoe Eco Village) in Kimberley, South Africa. The objective was to undertake a close observation through personal experience of the installations, measure water consumption and greywater produced, do an inventory of household cleaning chemicals and conduct interviews of different stake-holders of the Housing Project to find out their views on greywater and Ecosan issues. The study was conducted between June and August 2006.</p><p>The average water consumption per household per day during the study period was 272 L and 170 L in Eco Village and Hull Street respectively. The average greywater produced per household per day was 190 L and 119 L in Eco Village and Hull Street respectively. In Hull Street, the average water consumed and greywater produced per person per day during this study was 51L and 36L respectively. Three main types of treatment systems were installed in the study area; sandfilters, infiltration pits and resorption trenches. The sandfilters were poorly designed and were not functioning properly. The infiltration pits though working they were experiencing problems of poor infiltration and required constant draining and maintenance in many homes, especially those that have high water consumption and produce much greywater. The resorption trenches that make use of aerobic mulch media followed by infiltration had been installed in one house unit and after about 7 months had not presented problems to the user. Close monitoring done on this facility for about 4 weeks showed proper functioning according to its design.</p><p>Quite a lot had been done over time to improve on the installations in Hull Street and Eco village. The toilet installations have been exchanged and a number of alternatives to improve on the treated greywater have been attempted. The users and the housing company’s personnel feel one of the major problems being encountered is in treating greywater. Appropriate ways to compost faecal matter are still being sought. Hence use of greywater, urine and composted faeces in urban agriculture by residents is yet to be visible and will need encouragement.</p><p>Generally, the residents at Hull Street and Eco Village like the community life, house structures and location. However, they wish that improvement be made in some areas to make life in these areas more comfortable. The residents of both Hull Street and Eco Village expect better greywater treatment facilities. The community in Hull Street requests shopping centres, sport facilities, fence around the area, and taxi services among others. It is important to note that many people did not ask for further improvements on the toilet systems which might indicate they are coping with the urine diversion alternative sanitation.</p><p>The user perception on whole was good, but the need for constant attention and maintenance seems to offer a hurdle to the infiltration and sand filter facilities to treat greywater.</p>

As water stresses increase across the U.S., interest in household water reuse is growing. Such reuse typically focuses on light greywater, that is all wastewater generated in the house excluding toilet waste and kitchen wastewater. As this practice becomes more widespread, higher level reuse is expected to require greater greywater treatment prior to reuse. Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are an attractive technology for this application because they offer a robust combination of treatment processes and are already used in some households in countries such as Japan. This research sought to understand the role of phosphorus availability in determining the quality of effluent from MBR treatment of light greywater because phosphorus concentrations are expected to be low with phosphorus phased out of many consumer products. Less than 30 [mu]g/L of dissolved orthophosphate was present in synthetic greywater made from three common household products, and no measurable amount of dissolved orthophosphate was found in real greywater, but low concentrations of particulate phosphate were detected. These concentrations were well below levels believed necessary to achieve full BOD₅ removal in biological treatment. Nevertheless, MBR performance was not adversely affected until no supplemental phosphorus was provided. Measurement of extracellular enzyme activity showed an increase in the ratio of phosphatase activity to total glycosidase activity with declining phosphorus concentration, providing an early indication of nutrient stress before changes in effluent water quality were detected. Removal of three xenobiotic organic compounds (XOCs) in treatment of synthetic greywater was also evaluated under conditions of phosphorous limitation and balance. Abiotic removal mechanisms were not deemed to be important, but removal of methylparaben and sodium lauryl sulfate via biodegradation responded to nutrient limitation similarly to overall COD removal while removal of diethyl phthalate was affected to a greater extent. Measurement of plasmid DNA concentrations was evaluated as a potential indicator of the effect of nutrient limitation on plasmid-mediated biodegradation of XOCs. An overall reduction in the plasmid content was observed in all cases under conditions of phosphorus limitation; however, the extent of reduction was reactor dependent. / text

The reuse of domestic greywater for toilet flushing has the potential to reduce both water consumption and wastewater production, but there is a need for low-cost, low-maintenance greywater treatment systems that can meet reclaimed water quality standards. The purpose of this thesis is to develop a horizontal subsurface flow wetland design that can be sited in a greenhouse, to document the initial performance of the design treating real greywater, to determine the effect of plants, and to provide recommendations for design. Pilot wetlands (planted and unplanted replicates) were constructed in a passively heated greenhouse and fed real domestic greywater. Effluent quality was compared to national reclaimed water quality guidelines. After the first five months of the study, operational changes (reduced loading, aeration of influent, fill and drain) were tested to determine their effect on effluent quality. The results show that the original design basis, 7.5 gBOD m-2d-1, is not appropriate for greywater wetland design under the conditions of this study due to insufficient removal of BOD and turbidity (although suspended solids removal was acceptable). Anoxic conditions within the wetlands led to reduction of sulfate to hydrogen sulfide, which demands oxygen and leads to odour and turbidity problems. Plants did not affect treatment during the first five months. Aerating influent and operation in fill and drain mode may improve BOD removal at relatively high hydraulic loading rates, but effluent disinfection is required to completely remove E.coli. Design recommendations were developed, including tentative loading rates and plant species. / Ontario Centres of Excellence, NSERC

In recent years, the increasing awareness of scarcity of water resources, indications of likely climate variability, and the increasing pressure to use available fresh water resources more efficiently have together reinforced the need to look at infrastructure solutions with due regard to environmental considerations and social impacts, present and future. There is a vital need to apply an integrated approach to catchment management to implement sustainable solutions to resolve issues such as water supply and sewerage, drainage and river flooding. Many potentials solutions are available to control water demand and manage flood problems. Greywater recycling and rainwater harvesting are novel technologies. However, their catchment scale impacts on hydraulic and hydrological flows are poorly understood. The research aim is to identify the hydrologic and hydraulic impacts of scaling up such technologies at catchment scale. For this particular study, a computer simulation model will be used to evaluate how increasing urbanisation, climate change and the implementation of greywater recycling and rainwater harvesting may alter the water balance within a representative catchment. To achieve these aims data from the Carrickmines catchment in Ireland have been collected; a simulation model has been adapted to carry out the study, the model has been calibrated and validated, results have been analysed, and finally, a sensitivity analysis has been carried out. The results show that rainwater harvesting systems are comparatively more effective than greywater recycling techniques in reducing flood frequency and intensity. Under five year return period rainfall events, the implementation of rainwater harvesting at any scale and number of units is a useful technique to control river flow and floods. However, the study also shows that under extreme conditions the efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems decreases. The study concludes that implementing the two technologies within a single catchment is not a solution to several forms of hydrological problem. The study shows that implementing rainwater harvesting or re-use technologies are a very useful way to protect local freshwater reserves and therefore conserve our environment.

The Hull Street Integrated Housing Project, in Kimberley, is one of the projects supported by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Sida, in South Africa. The vision of the project is to provide low cost housing for the people of Kimberley. As a way of ensuring sustainability, the project adopts the Ecological sanitation (Ecosan) approach where urine and faeces are separated from the source. The concept of Ecosan is new to many people around the world. To make the concept workable and acceptable effective implementation strategies are required. At the Hull Street, after the first of the four phases 144 unit houses have been completed all fitted with the UDS. Urine from the UDS as well as the greywater from the kitchen and bathroom are connected to infiltrate into the ground. This arrangement is called the “quick-fix”. The faeces from the houses are sent to the compost yard for composting so that the residents could use the compost in their gardens. This study which involves interview with some selected workers and residents in Hull Street focuses on the modus operandi of the Ecosan unit of the Hull Street project with special emphasis on the methods of human excreta disposal and education strategies.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the various types of onsite greywater treatment facilities available at two housing communities (Hull Street and Moshoeshoe Eco Village) in Kimberley, South Africa. The objective was to undertake a close observation through personal experience of the installations, measure water consumption and greywater produced, do an inventory of household cleaning chemicals and conduct interviews of different stake-holders of the Housing Project to find out their views on greywater and Ecosan issues. The study was conducted between June and August 2006. The average water consumption per household per day during the study period was 272 L and 170 L in Eco Village and Hull Street respectively. The average greywater produced per household per day was 190 L and 119 L in Eco Village and Hull Street respectively. In Hull Street, the average water consumed and greywater produced per person per day during this study was 51L and 36L respectively. Three main types of treatment systems were installed in the study area; sandfilters, infiltration pits and resorption trenches. The sandfilters were poorly designed and were not functioning properly. The infiltration pits though working they were experiencing problems of poor infiltration and required constant draining and maintenance in many homes, especially those that have high water consumption and produce much greywater. The resorption trenches that make use of aerobic mulch media followed by infiltration had been installed in one house unit and after about 7 months had not presented problems to the user. Close monitoring done on this facility for about 4 weeks showed proper functioning according to its design. Quite a lot had been done over time to improve on the installations in Hull Street and Eco village. The toilet installations have been exchanged and a number of alternatives to improve on the treated greywater have been attempted. The users and the housing company’s personnel feel one of the major problems being encountered is in treating greywater. Appropriate ways to compost faecal matter are still being sought. Hence use of greywater, urine and composted faeces in urban agriculture by residents is yet to be visible and will need encouragement. Generally, the residents at Hull Street and Eco Village like the community life, house structures and location. However, they wish that improvement be made in some areas to make life in these areas more comfortable. The residents of both Hull Street and Eco Village expect better greywater treatment facilities. The community in Hull Street requests shopping centres, sport facilities, fence around the area, and taxi services among others. It is important to note that many people did not ask for further improvements on the toilet systems which might indicate they are coping with the urine diversion alternative sanitation. The user perception on whole was good, but the need for constant attention and maintenance seems to offer a hurdle to the infiltration and sand filter facilities to treat greywater.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The majority of rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa are predominantly poor and depend largely on small-scale subsistence farming. To date, various farming mechanisms (e.g. organic farming, crop rotation, agroforestry and inter-cropping) have been introduced to improve food security and to avert hunger; however, water scarcity remains a challenge. The sub-Saharan African region is currently regarded as water stressed and this has had a significant impact on rural livelihoods. Despite being considered as a water-scarce region, the demand for water for agricultural purposes continues to increase exponentially, while, on the other hand, its supply keeps on diminishing, particularly for agricultural production.

Thesis (M.A. (Communication Studies)) -- University of Limpopo, 2020 / This study aimed to develop a communication strategy for water re-use in Basic Education, which included illustrative learning materials which were suitable for online learning. To attain the intended aim, the study focussed on the subsequent objectives: to review and analyse learners’ and educators’ perceptions and understanding (knowledge) of water re-use; to examine strategies that could be employed to gain learners’ and educators’ understanding and acceptance of water re-use; to develop information or learning materials that would educate and enhance their understanding and informed decision making related to water re-use; and to discuss approaches to communicate water re-use in Basic Education. A qualitative orientation utilising participatory action research was employed as a research design for this study. A sample size of 80 participants, from four primary and four secondary schools in Mankweng Township was selected. 40 learners and 40 educators were selected. Convenience sampling was used to select the participants for this study. Data was collected by means of interviews, focus group discussions, workshops, teaching and participant observation. Thereafter, thematic analysis and NVivo software were employed to analyse data. This study employed Geertz’s notion of culture, Vygotsky’s social constructivism and the behaviour ecological model as theoretical frameworks to guide the research. Geertz’s interpretation of cultures was employed to understand culture and its effects on human behaviour, Vygotsky’s social constructivism was employed to understand the process of effective learning in educational contexts and the behaviour ecological model was employed to understand individuals’ behaviours and the background of the given behaviour. Understanding an individual’s behaviour and experiences towards water re-use assisted in developing water re-use illustrative learning materials. It also assisted with a communication strategy, which integrated Steyn and Puth’s steps, in the formulation of a communication strategy, joint approach model and a step by step content of a communication strategy and action plan model. The study revealed that the majority of individuals have negative perceptions and attitudes towards water re-use, due to a lack of awareness, knowledge and education. The “yuck” factor and health apprehensions were revealed to be major causes of such perceptions and attitudes. Education, campaigns and programmes, traditional and v new media, community meetings, rules, policies and regulation were reported as strategies which might be employed to promote water re-use. The study revealed that individuals’ home language must be made use of in all the water re-use promotional strategies. Communication approaches which promoted a platform for community participation, were revealed as appropriate for development programmes. As a result, participatory and development approaches to communication were considered suitable for communicating water re-use in Basic Education. The study further indicated that posters and storyboards were effective illustrative learning materials which could be employed to educate learners and raise their cognition regarding water re-use as a water conservation method. This would increase acceptability, awareness and practice and reduce negative perceptions, attitudes and concerns. The study indicated that water re-use communication should consider an individuals’ environmental, religious and cultural backgrounds, which would affect water re-use projects. The study also indicated that there was a relationship between an individuals’ perceptions, attitudes, education and culture.

Off-grid houses in the United States are often connoted with mostly non-professional, home-made structures and isolated, hippie living in remote rural areas. These off-grid homeowners may also complete their consumer-independent commitment with a minimal-waste, land-dependent lifestyle that includes methodical harnessing and recycling of resources and materials, raising livestock, and productive gardening on the property. This research paper explores the background, methods and kinds of typical off-grid living structures, their ability to harness natural resources for function and performance, and the ability of its occupants to remain resilient in the face of depleting fuel resources, extreme weather patterns, and rising costs of living. The goal of this research is to propose modern and resilient off-grid housing design to exist as normalized, micro-communities within typical suburban communities in the United States. The housing prototype, sited in Dudley, Massachusetts, optimizes passive resources for heating and cooling thermal comfort, prefabricated materials for construction, and modern technology for inhabitation. Its hyper-local design incorporates building science that integrates researched techniques and philosophies from current movements of sustainable design in the United States and Canada, such as Passive House, Net Zero, LEED, and the Living Building Challenge.

As the demand for reliable and safe water supplies increases, both water quality and available quantity are being challenged by population growth and climate change. Greywater reuse is becoming a common practice worldwide; however, in remote locations of limited water supply, such as those encountered in military installations, it is desirable to expand its classification to include dishwashing water to maximize the conservation of fresh water. Given that no standards for dishwashing greywater reuse by the military are currently available, the current study determined a specific set of water quality standards for dishwater recycling systems for U.S military field operations. A tentative water reuse standard for dishwashing water was developed based on federal and state regulations and guidelines for non-potable water, and the developed standard was cross-evaluated by monitoring water quality data from a full-scale dishwashing water recycling system using an innovative electrocoagulation and ultrafiltration process. A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was also performed based on exposure scenarios derived from literature data. As a result, a specific set of dishwashing water reuse standards for field analysis (simple, but accurate) was finalized as follows: turbidity (< 1 NTU), E. coli (< 50 cfu mL-1), and pH (6–9). UV254 was recommended as a surrogate for organic contaminants (e.g., BOD5), but requires further calibration steps for validation. The developed specific water standard is the first for dishwashing water reuse and will be expected to ensure that water quality is safe for field operations, but not so stringent that design complexity, cost, and operational and maintenance requirements will not be feasible for field use. In addition the parameters can be monitored using simple equipment in a field setting with only modest training requirements and real-time or rapid sample turn-around. This standard may prove useful in future development of civilian guidelines.