This thesis investigated the dissolution of dense non aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) source zones in the subsurface and the effectiveness of enhanced bioremediation for the treatment of chlorinated ethene DNAPLs, using numerical modeling. For this purpose, an existing multiphase numerical model was extended to include comprehensive models for the processes of dissolution and reaction. The first part of the thesis examined DNAPL dissolution. First, a thermodynamic-based dissolution model was validated using experimental data from two complex heterogeneous DNAPL releases. Model predictions for DNAPL spatial distribution and effluent concentrations agreed well with experimental measurements, without requiring calibration. This is the first successful application of a predictive dissolution model in the literature. Model results showed the important effects of relative permeability and interfacial areas on dissolution rates. Then, the thermodynamic dissolution model was compared to simpler models typically used in the literature. Five Sherwood-Gilland (SG) empirical correlations were evaluated and their limitations were illustrated. A new dissolution model was proposed that combined the predictive ability of the thermodynamic model and the simplicity of SG models, and is applicable for complex source zones. Lastly, the relationship between the DNAPL source architecture and downstream concentrations was investigated, focusing on multistage concentration profiles. A new upscaled model was proposed that is able to capture such complex behavior. In the second part of this thesis the thermodynamic dissolution model was combined with a model for reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes to simulate DNAPL bioremediation. Simulations were conducted for simple DNAPL source zones to investigate the impact of dissolution-related processes on bioremediation effectiveness. Dissolution kinetics and back-partitioning of daughter products in the DNAPL were shown to affect dechlorination. Then, the investigation was extended to DNAPL source zones of complex architectures in heterogeneous domains, illustrating the importance of the source zone architecture for the effectiveness of DNAPL bioremediation. Overall, this thesis presents a comprehensive numerical model that will be an important research tool for evaluating the effectiveness of in-situ bioremediation for DNAPL source zones, and will provide the means for a better understanding and control of the critical factors affecting this technology in the field.

This thesis investigated the dissolution of dense non aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) source zones in the subsurface and the effectiveness of enhanced bioremediation for the treatment of chlorinated ethene DNAPLs, using numerical modeling. For this purpose, an existing multiphase numerical model was extended to include comprehensive models for the processes of dissolution and reaction. The first part of the thesis examined DNAPL dissolution. First, a thermodynamic-based dissolution model was validated using experimental data from two complex heterogeneous DNAPL releases. Model predictions for DNAPL spatial distribution and effluent concentrations agreed well with experimental measurements, without requiring calibration. This is the first successful application of a predictive dissolution model in the literature. Model results showed the important effects of relative permeability and interfacial areas on dissolution rates. Then, the thermodynamic dissolution model was compared to simpler models typically used in the literature. Five Sherwood-Gilland (SG) empirical correlations were evaluated and their limitations were illustrated. A new dissolution model was proposed that combined the predictive ability of the thermodynamic model and the simplicity of SG models, and is applicable for complex source zones. Lastly, the relationship between the DNAPL source architecture and downstream concentrations was investigated, focusing on multistage concentration profiles. A new upscaled model was proposed that is able to capture such complex behavior. In the second part of this thesis the thermodynamic dissolution model was combined with a model for reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes to simulate DNAPL bioremediation. Simulations were conducted for simple DNAPL source zones to investigate the impact of dissolution-related processes on bioremediation effectiveness. Dissolution kinetics and back-partitioning of daughter products in the DNAPL were shown to affect dechlorination. Then, the investigation was extended to DNAPL source zones of complex architectures in heterogeneous domains, illustrating the importance of the source zone architecture for the effectiveness of DNAPL bioremediation. Overall, this thesis presents a comprehensive numerical model that will be an important research tool for evaluating the effectiveness of in-situ bioremediation for DNAPL source zones, and will provide the means for a better understanding and control of the critical factors affecting this technology in the field.

The design of pump and treat systems for groundwater remediation is often aided by numerical groundwater modelling. Model predictions are uncertain, with this uncertainty resulting from unknown parameter values, model structure and future system forcings. Researchers have begun to suggest that uncertainty in groundwater model predictions is largely dominated by structural/conceptual model uncertainty and that multiple conceptual models be developed in order to characterize this uncertainty. As regulatory bodies begin to endorse the more expensive multiple conceptual model approach, it is useful to assess whether a multiple model approach provides a signi cant improvement over a conventional single model approach for pump and treat system design, supplemented with a factor of safety. To investigate this question, a case study located in Tacoma, Washington which was provided by Conestoga-Rovers & Associates (CRA) was used. Twelve conceptual models were developed to represent conceptual model uncertainty at the Tacoma, Washington site and a pump and treat system was optimally designed for each conceptual model. Each design was tested across all 12 conceptual models with no factor of safety applied, and a factor of safety of 1.5 and 2 applied. Adding a factor of safety of 1.5 decreased the risk of containment failure to 15 percent, compared to 21 percent with no factor of safety. Increasing the factor of safety from 1.5 to 2 further reduced the risk of containment failure to 9 percent, indicating that the application of a factor of safety reduces the risk of design failure at a cost directly proportional to the value of the factor of safety. To provide a relatively independent estimate of a factor of safety approach a single "best" model developed by CRA was compared against the multiple model approach. With a factor of safety of 1.5 or greater, adequate capture was demonstrated across all 12 conceptual models. This demonstrated that in this case using the single \best" model developed by CRA with a factor of safety would have been a reasonable surrogate for a multiple model approach. This is of practical importance to engineers as it demonstrates that the a conventional single model approach may be su cient. However, it is essential that the model used is a good model. Furthermore, a multiple model approach will likely be an excessive burden in cases such as pump and treat system design, where the cost of failure is low as the system can be adjusted during operation to respond to new data. This may not be the case for remedial systems with high capital costs such as permeable reactive barriers, which cannot be easily adjusted.

<p>This thesis compares different methods for risk assessment of a creosote contaminated site in Vansbro, Dalarna. In a complementary study the importance of using representative data for calibration and validation of stationary groundwater models is discussed. The time dependency between surface water levels and groundwater levels on the site in Vansbro is evaluated by step response analysis. The results show that the groundwater levels reflect only long-term variation in the surface water levels. Hence the use of such long-term means for calibration and validation of the stationary groundwater models is the only theoretically defendable alternative.</p><p>As a first step in the comparison of risk assessment methods the degree of contamination is evaluated on the basis of generic guideline values for contaminated soils, developed by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. The guidelines specifically developed for contaminated petrol stations are also taken into consideration. Secondly, a site-specific evaluation is carried out. The transport of contaminants from the soil to the on-site groundwater and nearby surface water is calculated using the mathematical models behind the aforementioned guideline values. The calculated groundwater concentrations show a poor agreement with observed data and the thesis points out several possible explanations of this deviation. A sensitivity analysis is carried out and the influence of biodegradation during the transport in the aquifer is evaluated. The results indicate that the deviation between observed and calculated groundwater concentrations cannot be explained by the absence of biodegradation in the mathematical models, but rather by other simplifications and uncertainties in estimated model parameters.</p><p>Finally, a risk assessment is made on the basis of observed groundwater concentrations instead of observed soil concentrations as in the assessments above. Observed groundwater concentrations are compared with guideline values for groundwater on contaminated sites. The risk of negative environmental effects in the surface water is evaluated based on the estimated inflow of contaminated groundwater and its concentration of contaminants. The inflow is estimated from the interpolation of observed groundwater levels as well as with two numerical groundwater models of varying hydrogeological complexity: a three-dimensional flow model developed in Visual MODFLOW and a two-dimensional flow model developed in TWODAN. The models are compared with respect to the calculated inflows of contaminated groundwater into the surface water body as well as their ability to reproduce observed groundwater levels. The results indicate that the differences between the models, with respect to the calculated inflows, are of lesser importance to the risk assessment in comparison with the uncertainties associated with other parameters. The choice to base the assessment on observed contaminant concentrations in either the soil or the groundwater is shown to be of crucial importance.</p> / <p>I detta examensarbete jämförs olika metoder att bedöma de hälsomässiga och miljömässiga risker som föreligger med ett kreosotförorenat markområde i Vansbro, Dalarna. I en kompletterande undersökning belyses vikten av att stationära grundvattenmodeller kalibreras och valideras mot tidskompatibla indata. Tidsberoendet mellan yt- och grundvattennivåer på området i Vansbro studeras genom stegsvarsanalys. Resultaten visar att grundvattennivåerna på området anpassar sig mycket långsamt efter rådande ytvattennivåer. Grundvattennivåerna återspeglar således medelvärden av ytvattennivåerna över en mycket lång tidsperiod. Därför är användandet av sådana medelvärden för kalibrering och validering av modellerna det enda teoretiskt försvarbara alternativet.</p><p>Som ett första steg i jämförelsen mellan olika riskbedömningsmetoder utvärderas föroreningssituationen baserat på uppmätta föroreningskoncentrationer i jorden och med hjälp av Naturvårdsverkets generella samt branschspecifika riktvärden för förorenad mark. Därefter genomförs en platsspecifik riskbedömning. Föroreningstransporten från markområdet till grundvattnet samt till ett närbeläget ytvatten beräknas med de matematiska modeller som användes av Naturvårdsverket vid framtagandet av ovannämnda riktvärden. Beräknade grundvattenkoncentrationer jämförs med uppmätta koncentrationer och resultaten visar på stora avvikelser. En känslighetsanalys utförs och inverkan av biologisk nedbrytning i akviferen utvärderas. Resultaten tyder på att avvikelsen mellan uppmätta och beräknade grundvattenkoncentrationer ej förklaras av att biologisk nedbrytning inte beaktas i modellerna utan att avvikelsen härrör från andra förenklingar och från osäkerheter i indata.</p><p>Slutligen genomförs en platsspecifik riskbedömning, motsvarande den ovan, men denna gång utifrån uppmätta föroreningskoncentrationer i grundvattnet. De uppmätta grundvattenkoncentrationerna jämförs direkt mot Naturvårdsverkets riktvärden för grundvatten på förorenade områden. Risken för negativa ekologiska effekter i ytvattnet utvärderas utifrån det beräknade inflödet av förorenat grundvatten samt dess koncentration. Inflödet beräknas överslagsmässigt utifrån interpolerade grundvattennivåer samt med två numeriska grundvattenmodeller av olika hydrogeologisk komplexitet: en tredimensionell flödesmodell uppbyggd i Visual MODFLOW och en tvådimensionell modell uppbyggd i TWODAN. Grundvattenmodellerna jämförs med avseende på det beräknade inflödet och med avseende på deras förmåga att beskriva observerade grundvattenförhållanden.Resultaten tyder på att skillnaden i det, med de olika metoderna, beräknade inflödet är av liten betydelse för riskbedömningen i förhållande till osäkerheter förknippade med övriga parametrar. Störst betydelse för riskbedömningen får valet att utgå från uppmätta föroreningskoncentrationer i antingen jorden eller grundvattnet.</p>

The Mt. Tom Price Mine, located in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, has been the site of major iron ore mining since the 1960s by Rio Tinto Iron Ore/Pilbara Iron. The thesis project area covers approximately 121 km², covering the Mt. Tom Price Mining area and the surrounding catchment boundary. The climate in the Pilbara region is arid, with rainfall driven by seasonal cyclonic events, producing 300 mm/year net rainfall on average. The geology of the Mt. Tom Price area consists of a series of banded iron formations (BIF) and shales that are generally low in hydraulic conductivity values. Iron ore in the region is produced through the process of supergene enrichment whereby gangue minerals are dissolved and replaced with haematite and goethite. Mining is focused in a series of open cast pits including, North Deposit, West Pits, Centre Pits, Southern Ridge, South East Prongs, Section Six, Section Seven, and the proposed Marra Mamba Pits. Due to the impermeable nature and complex geology of the BIF sequence, groundwater flow is dominated by bedrock aquifer flow, with compartmentalization occurring in several areas of the mine. Highly faulted and folded units can also have increased hydraulic conductivity values. Pit floor lowering began to encounter the regional water table in early 1994. A series of dewatering bores and depressurization measurements have been utilized to ensure dry mining practice. This data was used to help understand regional groundwater flow and create the Mt. Tom Price Groundwater Model (MTPGM). A 3D geological model of the project area was created to aid visualisation of semi-regional hydrogeology. From this model, accurate template files were created so that geological detail loss is kept to a minimal when entering hydrogeological parameters into the MTPGM. The MTPGM was setup using PMWIN Pro, a graphical user interface for use with MODFLOW. Stresses such as recharge and pumping were entered via software packages within MODFLOW. The model was run to simulate measured 1994-2007 responses to dewatering and high rainfall events. A Parameter Estimation (PEST) software package and trial and error calibration was used to lower stress response variances that were observed in the model output files. This was achieved by the adjustment of hydrogeological parameters such as hydraulic conductivity and specific yield values. A prediction simulation of final pit lake recovery was created Using the calibrated MTPGM. Recovery curves predicted that full recovery of the water table of the pit voids varied from 96 to 120 years, recovering to levels close to the initial heads measured in 1994 before large-scale pumping commenced. The hydrochemistry of the groundwater in the mining area is highly influenced by geological hosts, with clearly defined hydrochemical signatures approximated for each screened geological unit. Due to the sulphur rich, acid- forming Mt. McRae Shale, regular monitoring of pit and groundwater is essential. Final pit lake water quality was estimated using final pit levels and recovery rates approximated from the MTPGM, combined with historical data and previous groundwater quality reports. Pit lake water quality is dominantly driven by evaporation concentration, caused by high evaporation rates and low throughflow. Pit waters are expected to be brine waters (greater than 100,000 mg/L TDS), with high levels of acidity values occurring in the South East Prongs and Section Six pits due to the exposure of the acid forming Mt. McRae Shale above the pit lakes at these localities. Future studies should focus on more detailed modelling of the compartmentalised aquifer systems. This would produce much more accurate final pit lake levels. Further study of the Mt. McRae Shale formation and its implications on acidity should also be undertaken. Seasonal fluctuations in lake levels will affect acidity due to the continual re-exposure and oxidation of the Mt. McRae Shale. This could be studied to help understand short term pit lake quality conditions and help to predict long term acidity conditions in the pit lakes.

Ur ett byggtekniskt perspektiv kan en sänkning i grundvattenytan i en sluten akvifer i ett område med lerjordar ge sättningar som kan skada byggkonstruktioner. Kopplingen mellan hydrogeologi och geoteknik är tydlig men oftast görs grova uppskattningar av konsekvenserna av en grundvattensänkning. Detta beror på att sättning vanligen beräknas i enskilda punkter där data finns att tillgå vilket endast ger resultat för sättningsberäkningar i dessa punkter. Ytor emellan punkterna utelämnas ofta. Dessutom är det inte vanligt att grundvattensänkningen beräknas med etablerade mjukvaruverktyg som Modflow för att få en mer detaljerad bild av avsänkningen och påverkansområdet.Denna studie kopplar samman en numerisk grundvattenmodell simulerad med Modflow samt en jordmodell, framtagen och interpolerad med kriging, med sättningsberäkningar. Detta resulterar i en integrerad modell som har till syfte att generera översiktskartor med predikterad sättning som resultat av grundvattensänkningar i utvalt område. Den integrerade modellen och sättningsberäkningarna är programmerade till denna studie med beräkningsverktyget Octave. Den integrerade sättningsmodellen testas på en fallstudie med verkliga geotekniska och hydrogeologiska data från ett område i Mälardalen. I fallstudien har ett hypotetiskt fall av grundvattensänkning simulerats. Grundläggande hydrogeologisk teori för slutna akviferer används för att bedöma vilka laster och ökad effektiv spänning grundvatten-sänkningar ger upphov till i jorden för fallstudien.Resultaten, i form av meter sättning, från den integrerade sättningsmodellen har verifierats mot beräkningar i programvaran Geosuite Settlement som är ett erkänt verktyg för sättningsberäkningar. Det visar sig att den integrerade sättningsmodellen beräknar sättningar med stor noggrannhet. Resultatet från grundvattenmodellen jämförs med en kriginginterpolerad grundvattenyta baserad på mätningar i grund-vattenrör i området. Grundvattenmodellen har i sin tur jordmodellen integrerad samt en vattenbalans som båda är baserade på verkliga data.Resultaten från fallstudien visar att oväntat stora sättningar kan förekomma i områden som ligger relativt långt ifrån källan för grundvattenavsänkningen. Detta motiverar användandet av en sådan metod för att bedöma risken för sättning.Till fallstudien har tre olika jordmodeller använts både i simulering av grundvattenströmning och simulering med den integrerade sättningsmodellen. De tre jordmodellerna skiljer sig åt så till vida att de har olika mängd data som kriginginterpolationen grundar sig på, det innebär också olika datatäthet i jordmodellerna. Detta har till syfte att undersöka hur sättningsbilden påverkas av datatätheten i jordmodellen och även hur grundvattenmodellen respektive sättningsmodellen påverkas. Resultaten i respektive modell påverkas inte mer än försumbart av datatätheten i jordmodellen visar fallstudien. / From a construction engineering point of view groundwater drawdown in a confined aquifer can result in ground subsidence that can damage buildings and constructions. The connection between hydrogeology and soil mechanics is clear, however when estimating ground settlement as a result of groundwater drawdown the estimations are often rough. This is due to that settlement is traditionally calculated with methods that only allow calculations in single points where geotechnical data is estimated. Areas between these points are often left out of the calculations. Groundwater drawdown is seldom simulated with acknowledged software programs like Modflow when estimating groundwater lowering and the affected area.This study combines a groundwater model simulated in Modflow and a soil strata model, interpolated with Kriging, with settlement calculations. This ends up as a an integrated soil settlement model which has the purpose to generate overview maps over areas that are sensitive to settlement as a result of ground water lowering. The integrated model is programmed in Octave for this study. The model is then tested with a case study that uses data from a real construction project in the area of Mälardalen. A hypothetical case of ground water lowering is simulated for the case study. Fundamental hydro-geological theory is used to estimate loads and effective stresses from the lowering of the water table.The result from the integrated model has been validated against calculations of settlement in the software Geosuite Settlement which is an acknowledged method for settlement calculations. This shows that the integrated model calculates settlement with great precision. The modeled initial ground water table is compared with a kriginginterpolated groundwater table which is based on data from ground water pipes in the area. Based on the comparison the initial ground water conditions simulated in Modflow are accepted. This simulated ground water model has the soil model and also a water balance integrated.The results from the case study show that unexpectedly large ground settlements can occur even far from the source of the ground water lowering.For the case study three different soil models are used, both in the ground water model and in the integrated model. The soil models differ in a way that they are based on different amounts of data from which the kriging interpolation is done. The purpose for this is to investigate what effects this might have on the ground water model and the integrated model respectively. The results from these different simulations show insignificantly small differences.

<p>In the recent decades, therehave been frequent conflicts between groundwater waterresources and environmentally hazardous activities. Newmethodologies for aiding decision-making in groundwater impactassessment and protection areneeded and in which issues ofincreased awareness, better understanding of the groundwaterresources processes, and validation of predictive mathematicalmodels are addressed.</p><p>A framework fordecision–aid, based on predictive simulations that a)predicts the environmental impacts b) provides the totaleconomical value c) visualises the impacts and the groundwaterproperties and d) describes the uncertainties in the results isproposed herein. The framework can be applied in environmentalimpact assessments, strategic environmental assessments andprotection and management of water resources. The results ofthe model are used as feedback for determining new scenarios,depending on the required uncertainties, and if the plannedactivity is sustainable, and/or fulfils the legislative andpolicy measures. This framework is applied to a particular casestudy, Nybroåsen, in the south-eastern part of Sweden,where the highway E22 is constructed through the importantglaciofluvial esker aquifer, passing the protection zone of thewater supply for the Kalmar municipality.</p><p>The impacts from the new highwayand the existing road have been predicted by two-dimensionalphysically based time-variant flow and solute groundwatermodelling. The results, breakthrough curves of contaminantconcentration in wells and maps of concentration distributions,as well as travel times, flow paths, and capture zones forwells determined by particle tracking have been presented.</p><p>The constructed model of theNybroåsen study area was calibrated by comparing observedand simulated groundwater levels for 15 observation wells forten years of measurements. The model has been evaluated bothgraphically and numerically and the calibration target wasfulfilled for 13 of the 15 observation wells. The model workincludes investigations of the catchment information, a waterbalance study, simulation of the groundwater recharge,consideration of the unsaturated zone by a numerical columnsimulation, and sensitivity analysis.</p><p>From the sensitivity analysis ofthe flow and transport parameters, it has been shown that theuncertainties are mainly due to the hydraulic conductivity.Comparison of the derived conductivity from the steady-stateautomatic calibration and the time-variant calibration showedthat there are major differences in the derived parameters,which illustrates the importance of a time dependentcalibration over both wet and dry periods and in more than onepoint in the area of interest of the model predictions.</p><p>In addition, a multi-criteriadecision analysis has been carried out for four roadalternatives (including the new highway E22) and the existingroad in the case study concerned. The multi-criteria decisionaid is applied as an illustration of how it can be used in thestudy area to identify a) interest groups of actors and theirconcerns b) ranking of alternative road scenarios according toactors’preferences and c) coalition groups of actors<i>i.e.</i>groups that have similar views with regard to theroad alternatives.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>Physically-based groundwater modelling,contamination, flow and solute transport, glaciofluvialdeposits, Nybroåsen, Sweden, and multi-criteriadecision-aid.</p>

<p>Over an extended period of time there have been plans to establish a shared facility in Lennheden to extract groundwater from the Badelunda esker to provide drinking water for the cities of Borlänge and Falun. The city of Falun is dissatisfied with the quality of its drinking water and the city of Borlänge is concerned about the risk of contamination of its existing groundwater supply at its current location. To provide a basis for a decision on this issue, the company Midvatten AB has been commissioned to perform hydrogeological investigations in the area of Lennheden.</p><p>The purpose of this thesis is to design a functional groundwater model of the area between Lennheden, place of planned extraction, and Övre Tjärna, place of existing extraction, to get a better understanding of the groundwater situation in the area. A groundwater model enables simulations of different scenarios in risk assessment and contaminant transport. The aim of the thesis is that the model can be used as an aid in Midvatten’s investigations in Lennheden and that it also can be used in future projects in the area.</p><p>The model has been made in Processing Modflow 5.3 and encompasses an area of 19,5 × 11 km along the Badelunda esker and the river Dalälven between Djurmo and Frostbrunnsdalen. The model has 6 layers and a cell resolution of 50 × 50 meters and 50 × 100 meters. The physical parameters of the model are comprised from different hydrological and geological investigations in the area.</p><p>The Badelunda esker and the river Dalälven totally dominate the groundwater situation in the area. A large part of the work in the thesis has been focused on the calibration of the horizontal hydraulic conductivity in the esker and the vertical hydraulic conductivity in the riverbed of Dalälven. The calibration of the model implies a vertical hydraulic conductivity of 0,01 – 0,1 md-1 in the riverbed of Dalälven, depending on the riverbed thickness.</p><p>Between Bäsna and Övre Tjärna, simulated and observed groundwater levels correspond well. The transport time of the water in the esker, simulated in PMPATH, also corresponds well with estimated transport times. The model can be used for simpler studies of contaminant transport.</p><p>Simulation of the pumping test in Lennheden gives a good correspondence eastward in the esker from Lennheden to Övre Tjärna. Westward in the esker, from Lennheden to Bäsna, the draw down is sharper than observed. Possible reasons for the sharper draw down is an underestimation of the bulk of the esker and that the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the riverbed is set too low between Lennheden and Bäsna.</p><p>In order to improve the model, the most important step should be to thoroughly investigate the river Dalälven with regards to vertical hydraulic conductivity in the riverbed and riverbed thickness.</p> / <p>Under en längre tid har det funnits planer på att upprätta en ny, gemensam vattentäkt för Borlänge och Falu kommun i Badelundaåsen i Lennheden nordväst om Borlänge stad. Falu kommun är missnöjd med vattenkvaliteten i sin ytvattentäkt och Borlänge är oroad över riskerna med att ha sin nuvarande vattentäkt i Badelundaåsen lokaliserad i nära anslutning till riksväg 70 och järnvägen. Beslut i frågan ska tas under 2006 och Midvatten AB har fått i uppdrag att genomföra geohydrologiska undersökningar i och runt Lennheden som underlag till beslutet.</p><p>Syftet med det här examensarbetet är att skapa en fungerande grundvattenmodell för området mellan Lennheden, plats för planerat vattenuttag, och Övre Tjärna, plats för befintligt vattenuttag, för att få en större förståelse för grundvattenmagasinet. En grundvattenmodell möjliggör simulering av olika scenarion så som föroreningstransport i grundvattnet och bestämning av skyddsområden. Målet är att modellen ska kunna användas som ett komplement i Midvattens undersökningar och även användas i framtida projekt i området.</p><p>Modellen är gjord i Processing Modflow 5.3 och omfattar ett 19,5 × 11 km stort område längs Badelundaåsen och Dalälven mellan Djurmo och Frostbrunnsdalen. Modellen består av 6 lager där cellernas upplösning är 50 × 50 meter och 50 × 100 meter. De fysiska parametrar som modellen är uppbyggd av är sammanställda från olika hydrologiska och geologiska undersökningar som har utförts i området de senaste 30 åren.</p><p>Badelundaåsen och Dalälven är de två komponenter som totalt dominerar grundvattensituationen i området. En stor del av arbetet har fokuserats på kalibreringen av den horisontella hydrauliska konduktiviteten i åsen och den vertikala hydrauliska konduktiviteten i Dalälvens botten. I modellen är den vertikala hydrauliska konduktiviteten i Dalälvens botten kalibrerad till intervallet 0,01 – 0,1 md-1 beroende på bottnens mäktighet.</p><p>På sträckan mellan Bäsna och Övre Tjärna så fungerar modellen bra. Simulerade och observerade grundvattennivåer stämmer väl överens. Även vattnets transporttider i åsen, simulerade i PMPATH, stämmer väl överens med uppskattade transporttider. Modellen kan användas för enklare studier av ämnestransport.</p><p>Vid simulering av provpumpningen i Lennheden så är överensstämmelsen god österut i åsen, från Lennheden till Övre Tjärna. Västerut i åsen, från Lennheden till Bäsna, är avsänkningen av grundvattennivån för kraftig. Möjliga orsaker till den för kraftiga avsänkningen är att åsens utbredning är underskattad och att Dalälvens botten har en för lågt ansatt vertikal hydraulisk konduktivitet längs sträckan Lennheden – Bäsna.</p><p>Den klart viktigaste åtgärden för att förbättra modellen skulle vara att grundligt undersöka Dalälven, särskilt längs sträckan Djurmo – Båtsta, med avseende på dess bottens vertikala hydrauliska konduktivitet och mäktighet.</p>

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a group of man-made organic chemicals that have been commercially used since the 1950s in many consumer products, including impregnated textiles, impregnated paper, nonstick products (e.g., Teflon), cleaning agents, and in firefighting foams. However, PFASs have in recent years received increasing public attention due to their persistence, bioaccumulative potential, and potentially toxic effects on humans and animals. Firefighting training sites have been identified as one of the most important sources for the spread of PFASs in the environment, due to the use of PFAS-containing firefighting foam of type AFFFs (aqueous film forming foams). This has resulted in contamination of both drinking water and groundwater in several municipalities in Sweden. At the former fire station in Åkersberga, AFFFs were handled and used during the fire-training exercises. WSP Environmental Sweden has performed a preliminary investigation on site and elevated levels of PFASs in both soil and groundwater were observed. Since the property is located next to a railroad track, there is a concern that PFASs will spread through the railroad track towards the nearby Åkers canal. The aim of this master’s thesis has therefore been to map the transport of PFASs in groundwater from this former fire station. A groundwater flow model was first constructed in the software program Visual MODFLOW. The groundwater model was then used as a basis for the construction of a transport model with MODPATH and MT3DMS. The transport of four PFAS homologues was modeled; perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 6:2 Fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS), and perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA). The result of the groundwater modelling showed that groundwater from the property flows towards the southwest and then further towards Åkers canal. The approximated velocity of a water molecule varied between 270 m/year and 400 m/year. The transport modelling showed that all four PFAS homologues traveled towards Åkers canal via the railroad track and that the short-chain PFAS homologues (6:2 FTS and PFPeA) traveled longer and faster than the long-chain PFAS homologues (PFOS and PFOA). The approximated velocity of the contaminant plume for the concentration 4.5 ·10−5 mg/L was 0.6 m/year for PFOS, 3 m/year for PFOA, 8 m/year for 6:2 FTS, and 16 m/year for PFPeA. / Per- och polyfluorerade alkylsubstanser (PFAS) är en grupp av konstgjorda organiska kemikalier som sedan 1950-talet har kommersiellt använts i många konsumentprodukter, inklusive impregnerade textilier, impregnerat papper, nonstick-produkter (t.ex. Teflon), rengöringsmedel och brandsläckningsskum. PFAS har dock under senare år fått ökad allmän uppmärksamhet på grund av deras persistens, bioackumuleringspotential och potentiella toxiska effekter på människor och djur. Brandövningsplatser har identifierats som en av de största källorna för spridningen av PFAS i miljön, på grund av användningen av PFAS-innehållande brandsläckningsskum av typen AFFF (aqueous film forming foams). Detta har resulterat i förorening av både dricksvatten och grundvatten i flera kommuner i Sverige. På den tidigare brandstationen i Åkersberga har hantering och användning av AFFF ägt rum under släckningsövningarna. WSP Environmental Sverige har utfört förundersökning på plats och förhöjda halter PFAS i både jord och grundvatten observerades. Då fastigheten gränsar mot en banvall, finns det en oro att PFAS ska sprida via banvallen mot den närliggande Åkers kanalen. Syftet med detta examensarbete har därför varit att kartlägga transporten av PFAS i grundvatten från denna tidigare brandstation. En grundvattenflödesmodell konstruerades först i programvaran Visual MODFLOW. Grundvattenmodellen användes sedan som grund för konstruktionen av en transportmodell med MODPATH och MT3DMS. Transporten av fyra PFAS-homologer modellerades; perfluoroktansulfonat (PFOS), perfluorooktansyra (PFOA), 6:2 fluortelomersulfonat (6: 2 FTS) och perfluorpentansyra (PFPeA). Resultatet av grundvattenmodelleringen visade att grundvatten från fastigheten strömmar mot sydväst och sedan vidare mot Åkers kanal. Den approximerade hastigheten hos en vattenmolekyl varierade mellan 270 m/år och 400 m/år. Transportmodelleringen visade att alla fyra PFAS-homologerna spred mot Åkers kanal via banvallen och att de kortkedjiga PFAS-homologerna (6:2 FTS och PFPeA) spred längre och snabbare än de långkedjiga PFAS-homologerna (PFOS och PFOA). Ungefärlig hastighet av föroreningsplymen för koncentration 4.5 ·10−5 mg/L var 0,6 m/år för PFOS, 3 m/år för PFOA, 8 m/år för 6: 2 FTS och 16 m/år för PFPeA.

The efficacy of injection-driven remediation techniques for non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) source zones is limited by the principle that fluid flow is focused along paths of least hydraulic resistance. The pressure pulse technology stands among a number of innovative methods that have been developed with the aim of overcoming or mitigating this limitation. The objective of this research was to observe and document differences in saturated groundwater flow and solute transport between an injection using a conventional or continuous pressure delivery approach and an injection using a pressure pulsing instrument. The underlying motivation was to identify engineering opportunities presented by pressure pulsing with the potential to improve remediation efficiency at contaminated sites. A series of tracer injections were conducted in the unconfined aquifer at the University of Waterloo Groundwater Research Facility at Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Borden near Alliston, ON (homogeneous fine sand), and in the shallow aquifer at a groundwater research site located on the North Campus at the University of Waterloo (moderately heterogeneous with discrete layers varying from fine sand to silt). A single injection well was used at each site for both the conventional and pressure pulsing injections. Different tracers were used for consecutive injections. Bromide, Lithium, Chloride, and fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine WT and Sulforhodamine B) were used. Formation pressurization data was captured by pressure transducers. The spatial distribution of the injected tracers was monitored at a series of multilevel wells. A groundwater flow and solute transport modeling exercise (MODFLOW and MT3DMS numerical engines) simulating the rapid boundary pressure modulation that occurs in association with pressure pulsing was conducted to complement the field injections. A two-dimensional domain was used to conduct a parametric investigation of pressure modulation and its effect on flow and transport. A three-dimensional domain served to scale-up the two-dimensional results and for benchmarking against field observations. Pressure pulsing simulation results reveal that repeated sudden onset of injection cessation produces brief periods of gradient reversal near the injection well and the development of a mixing zone around the injection well. The spatial extents of this mixing zone are highly dependent upon the hydraulic diffusivity of the medium. Greater heterogeneity in combination with presence of high hydraulic diffusivity pathways maximized the extent of the mixing zone and the magnitude of transverse and reversal hydraulic gradients. Lower pulsing frequency and higher pulsing amplitude favoured a more significant mixing zone, though these effects were secondary to geologic properties. Use of the pressure pulsing tool did not manifest into distinct changes in tracer breakthrough at either field research site. Comparison between tracer tests was complicated by sorption of fluorescent dyes and ongoing well development. Solute transport simulation results demonstrated augmentation of dispersion arising from the mixing zone phenomenon, but no distinct changes in advection.