The bacteria in host-associated microbial communities influence host health through various mechanisms, such as immune stimulation or the release of metabolites. However, viruses that target bacteria, called bacteriophages (phages), may also shape the animal microbiome. Most phage lifecycles can be classified as either lytic or temperate. Lytic phages infect and directly kill bacterial hosts and can directly regulate bacterial population size. Temperate phages, in contrast, have the potential to undergo either a lytic cycle or integrate into the bacterial genome as a prophage. As a prophage, the phage may alter bacterial host phenotypes by carrying novel genes associated with auxiliary metabolic functions, virulence-enhancing toxins, or resistance to other phage infections. Lytic phages may also carry certain auxiliary metabolic genes, which are instead used to takeover bacterial host functions to better accommodate the lytic lifecycle. In either case, the ability to alter bacterial phenotypes may have important ramifications on host-associated communities. This dissertation focused on the genetic contributions that phages, and particularly prophages, provide to the bacterial members of two separate host-associated communities: the honey bee (Apis mellifera) gut microbiome and the amphibian skin microbiome. My second chapter surveyed publicly available whole genome sequences of common honey bee gut bacterial species for prophages. It revealed that prophage distribution varied by bacterial host, and that the most common auxiliary metabolic genes were associated with carbohydrate metabolism. In chapter three, this bioinformatic pipeline was applied to the amphibian skin microbiome. Prophages were identified in whole genome bacterial sequences of bacteria isolated from the skin of American bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens), Spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer) and American toads (Anaxyrus americanus). Prophages were additionally identified in publicly available genomes of non-amphibian isolates of Janthinobacterium lividum, a bacteria found both on amphibian skin and broadly in the environment. In addition to a diverse set of predicted prophages across amphibian bacterial isolates, several Janthinobacterium lividum prophages from both amphibian and environmental isolates appear to encode a chitinase-like gene undergoing strong purifying selection within the bacterial host. While identifying the specific function of this gene would require in vitro isolation and testing, its high homology to chitinase and endolysins suggest it may be involved in the breakdown of either fungal or bacterial cellular wall components. Finally, my fourth chapter revisits the honey bee gut system by investigating the role of geographic distance in bacteriophage community similarity. A total of 12 apiaries across a transect of the United States, from Virginia to Washington, were sampled and honey bee viromes were sequenced, focusing on the lytic and actively lysing temperate community of phages. Although each apiary possessed many unique bacteriophages, apiaries that were closer together did have more similar communities. Each bacteriophage community also carried auxiliary carbohydrate genes, especially those associated with sucrose degradation, and antimicrobial resistance genes. Combined, the results of these three studies suggest that bacteriophages, and particularly prophages, may be contributing to the genetic diversity of the bacterial community through nuanced relationships with their bacterial hosts. / Doctor of Philosophy / The microbial communities of animals, called "microbiomes", play important roles in the health of animals. The bacteria in these microbiomes can help strengthen the immune system, provide resistance to dangerous pathogens, and break down nutrients. However, bacteria are not alone in the microbiome; viruses are also present. Surprisingly, the vast majority of the world's viruses, even those living inside animals, infect bacteria. These viruses, called "bacteriophages" or "phages", can impact the bacterial communities in a microbiome. Phages can be grouped in to two broad categories based on lifecycle. Lytic phages kill the bacterial host directly after infection. Temperate phages, on the other hand, can either immediately kill the host like lytic phages or alternatively, become a part of the bacterial genome and live as prophages. Phages with both lifecycles can sometimes carry genes that, although not essential to the phage, may change the traits of the bacteria during infection. For example, some phages carry toxin genes, which bacteria use to cause disease in animals. Other phages might carry genes that provide antibiotic resistance or alter the metabolism of the infected bacteria. If a phage gene benefits the infected bacteria, the bacteria may begin interacting with its environment in a new way or may even become more abundant. Alternatively, phages that directly kill infected bacteria may have a negative effect on bacterial population sizes. To begin unraveling how phages influence bacterial species in microbiomes, I investigated two different animal systems: the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) gut microbiome and the amphibian skin microbiome. I first identified prophages of several common bacterial species that reside in the honey bee gut (Chapter 2). Prophages were more common in certain bacterial species than others, and some possessed genes associated with the breakdown of sugars or pollen, suggesting they help honey bees process their food. Using similar techniques, I then identified prophages in bacteria isolated from the skin microbiomes of several amphibian species common in the eastern United States (American bullfrogs, Eastern newts, Spring peepers, and American toads) (Chapter 3). Most notably, the bacteria Janthinobacterium lividum may benefit from prophages that carry genes for potentially antifungal chitinase enzymes that destroy the fungal cell wall. Finally, I returned to the honey bee gut microbiome system by investigating how honey bee bacteriophage communities change over large geographic distances (Chapter 4). This study, which examined honey bees from 12 apiaries sampled from the east to west coast of the United States, looks primarily at lytic phage and temperate phage that are not integrated as prophage, but are instead seeking a bacterial host to infect. I found that nearby apiaries tended to have more similar communities of bacteriophages, compared to apiaries far away. Additionally, most bacteriophage communities carry genes associated with the breakdown of sugars like sucrose. Overall, these three studies show that phages, and especially prophages, contribute to the genetic landscape of the microbiome by broadly providing bacterial hosts with access to a diverse set of genes.

Le microbiome intestinal humain est une importante communauté de microorganismes, spécifique aux individus et aux populations, dont la composition est influencée par de nombreux facteurs, tels que la génétique et les habitudes de vie de son hôte. La diète est cependant un élément majeur façonnant sa structure. Les influences de plusieurs diètes humaines sur le microbiome ont été largement investiguées. Toutefois, l’impact des variations saisonnières inhérentes à certaines diètes est peu connu. La diète traditionnelle inuite est un exemple de régime alimentaire riche en graisses et protéines animales qui varie temporellement en fonction de la disponibilité saisonnière des ressources. Afin d’étudier les dynamiques temporelles du microbiome intestinal inuit en réponse à la diète traditionnelle, des échantillons de papier hygiénique contenant des selles ont été récoltés auprès d’un groupe de volontaire Inuits du Nunavut (Canada) durant huit mois. Un groupe contrôle de Montréalais (Québec, Canada) de descendance européenne, consommant une diète typiquement occidentale, a également été sollicité. La diversité et la composition du microbiome ont été caractérisées par le séquençage de la région V4 de l’ARNr 16s. Les microbiomes obtenus par un échantillonnage de papier hygiénique et de selles ont été comparés. Ces deux méthodes offrent des représentations similaires mais non-identiques du microbiome intestinal. À partir du séquençage d’échantillons de papier hygiénique, nous avons trouvé que les variations inter-individuelles du microbiome sont plus importantes que les variations intra-individuelles au sein de Montréal et du Nunavut. Des différences significatives de la composition du microbiome s’expliqueraient par la consommation différentielle de certains groupes alimentaires. Bien qu’aucune différence saisonnière marquée n’ait été observée, en termes de composition, le microbiome fluctue davantage à travers le temps chez les individus inuits. Ces résultats suggèrent que le microbiome inuit pourrait être façonné par une diète plus variable. Ensemble, nos résultats suggèrent que la diète traditionnelle a encore un impact important sur la composition, la diversité et la stabilité de microbiome inuit, malgré les transitions alimentaires vécues au Nunavut. / The human gut microbiome represents a diverse microbial community specific to individuals and populations, which is heavily influenced by factors such as genetics and lifestyle. Diet is a major force shaping the gut microbiome, and the effects of dietary choices on microbiome composition have been thoroughly investigated. It has been shown that a change in diet also changes the gut microbiome, but the effects of seasonal diets are poorly known. The traditional Inuit diet is primarily based on animal products, which vary seasonally based on prey availability. To investigate the dynamics of the Inuit diet over time, we collected gut microbiome samples from Inuit volunteers living in Resolute Bay (Nunavut, Canada), and compared them to samples collected from individuals of European descent living in Montréal (Québec, Canada) and consuming a typical Western diet. We sequenced the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene to characterize the diversity and composition of the Inuit microbiome, and surveyed differences among samples collected with toilet paper or from stool. Our results show that these sampling methods provide similar, but non-identical portraits of the microbiome. Based on sequencing from toilet paper samples alone, we found that inter-individual variations of the microbiome community composition were greater than within-individual variations, both in Nunavut and Montreal, with significant differences in microbiome explained by dietary preferences. No defined seasonal shift of microbiome composition was detected in samples collected over time. However, within-individual microbial diversity fluctuated more with time in Nunavut than in Montreal. Together, these results underline that the traditional Inuit diet still has an important impact on the composition, diversity and stability of the Inuit gut microbiome, even if the traditional seasonality of the diet is less pronounced than expected, due to an increasingly westernized diet in Nunavut.

No description available.

Le pangénome est l’ensemble des gènes uniques retrouvé chez une espèce. Dans le cas des espèces procaryotes, notamment celles qui sont présentes dans le microbiote intestinal humain, la variation du contenu en gène est caractérisée par des événements de gain de gènes principalement par transfert horizontal de gènes (THG) et de perte de gène. Cette variation du contenu en gène peut être plus rapide que le taux de mutation et permettre aux microbes de s’adapter rapidement à des pressions sélectives. Cela justifie donc l’étude de l’évolution pangénomique des procaryotes sur des échelles de temps humaines qui sont considérées comme étant courtes du point de vue évolutif, par exemple de l’ordre de quelques années. La plupart des études sur ce sujet impliquent des espèces relativement distantes qui ont divergé depuis des millions d’années. De plus, l'équilibre des forces évolutives majeures impliquées, telles que le THG, la sélection, la dérive génétique et les mutations, n’est pas clairement défini et est au cœur d’un débat dans la littérature. Ce projet de maîtrise permet donc d’élargir le portrait évolutif des pangénomes de procaryotes en s’intéressant à l’évolution des gènes transférés horizontalement, aussi appelés gènes mobiles, sur de courtes échelles de temps. Pour ce faire, nous allons d’abord passer en revue la littérature pertinente en lien avec ce sujet, notamment les méthodes employées pour détecter les gènes mobiles et les modèles d’évolution pangénomique. Nous allons ensuite analyser l’évolution d’une collection de 37 853 gènes mobiles impliqués dans des THG récents détectés dans le microbiote intestinal d’individus provenant d’Amérique du Nord ou des îles Fidji. Pour détecter des signatures évolutives des forces en action, nous estimerons divers paramètres de génétique des populations à partir de l’alignement entre les lectures de séquençage métagénomique de 176 microbiotes fidjiens et cette collection de gènes mobiles. Nous expliquerons aussi l’outil de simulations évolutives que nous avons développé afin de valider et expliquer certaines de nos observations. Sans exclure la présence de pressions de sélection pour des gènes mobiles ayant des fonctions spécifiques, les données réelles et les simulations nous amènent à conclure que l’évolution des gènes mobiles sur de courtes échelles de temps peut être expliquée par un modèle d’évolution où les gènes mobiles ne sont pas largement adaptifs à leurs hôtes humains ou microbiens, contrairement à ce qui est parfois observé sur de longues échelles de temps évolutif. / The pangenome is the collection of unique genes found in a species. For prokaryotes, especially those present in the human gut microbiota, variation in gene content is characterized by gene gain through horizontal gene transfer (HGT) and gene loss. In human gut, gene content variations can occur at faster rates than mutation, which allow microbes to adapt rapidly to environmental changes. This justifies the study of the prokaryotes pangenome evolution on human time scales which are considered evolutionarily short, e.g. in the order of few years. Most studies about the evolution of prokaryotic pangenomes involve relatively distant species that have diverged since millions of years. In addition, the balance of major evolutionary forces involved, such as horizontal transfer, selection, genetic drift, and mutations, is not clearly defined and is debated in literature. This master's project therefore aims to broaden the evolutionary portrait of prokaryotic pangenome evolution by focusing on near-term evolution. To do this, we will first review the relevant literature related to this topic, including the methods used to detect mobile genes and the pangenome evolution models. We will then analyze the evolution of a pre-existing collection of 37 853 mobile genes involved in recent HGT events detected in the gut microbiota of individuals from North America and Fiji Islands. To detect evolutionary signatures of the forces in action, we will estimate various population genetics parameters from the alignment between metagenomic sequencing reads of 176 Fijian microbiomes and this collection of mobile genes. We will also explain the evolutionary simulation tool that we have developed in order to validate and explain some of our observations. While we don’t exclude the importance of selection for specific cellular functions for pangenome evolution, we found that the near-term evolution of mobile genes can be explained by a model in which mobile genes can spread selfishly without being largely adaptive to their human or microbial hosts, contrarily to what is often observed over longer evolutionary time scales.

The effect of gluten-free diet on β-cell residual capacity, immune function and gut microbiome in children with newly diagnosed type 1. diabetes Abstract The pathophysiology of the onset and progression of type 1 diabetes (T1D) is not fully understood. Gluten has a proinflammatory effect on the immune system and is therefore considered as one of the factors affecting the onset and progression of T1D. The aim of the thesis is to allow a complex insight into the role of the GFD on the residual β-cell capacity, T1D control, gut microbiome, gut permeability, subtypes of immune cells and the effect of gut microbiome transfer into germ-free non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice on the incidence of diabetes. On the group of 45 children with T1D (26 intervention group, 19 control group) we proved the association of the GFD with slower decrease of β-cell residual capacity (the difference in the trend of C-peptide decrease 409 pmol/l/year; p = 0,04) and lower HbA1c (by 7,8 mmol/mol; p=0,02). We also described the changes in the gut bacteria that were differentially abundant after the administration of the GFD and the changes in abundance of the regulatory and effector immune cells. We showed there was no change in the gut permeability with respect to the study group. We also proved that the transfer of human gut microbiota...

No description available.

<p>  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is the most serious form of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) and the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder in North America. Patients with FAS may exhibit cognitive problems with working memory, manipulating information, and reduced executive functioning. Additionally, previous studies exhibited that stress responses are affected by prenatal alcohol consumption Gut microbiota compositions can also influence stress responses and memory, as several studies have shown strong relationships between the enteric gut system and the brain. However, few studies have examined how prenatal alcohol exposure’s effects on the gut microbiome and neuroinflammatory responses. For this study, pregnant HsdBlu:LE Long Evans rats were treated with either a dry diet, liquid diet, or liquid diet with alcohol. On day 28 and 42 after birth, three male and three female adolescent pups from each treatment group had their gut microbiome (fecal samples) analyzed through 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Brain histology staining of the cortex and hippocampus regions was also done to evaluate changes in the CNS through microglial counts and morphology analysis. There were no significant differences in alpha diversity of the fecal microbiome between groups of pups based on prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE), sex, age, the interaction of PAE and sex, or in the morphology of cortex microglia. However, analysis of beta diversity using Bray-Curtis dissimilarity and weighted UniFrac suggested distinct microbial communities between the treatment groups based on PAE and the interaction of PAE, sex, and the interaction between PAE and sex. Microglial count comparisons by PAE or sex were only statistically different in the cortex (p ≤ 0.005). The significance of this study suggests that there are some associations between the gut microbiome and CNS inflammation in rats with PAE. Based on these findings, 11 future studies may implement therapeutics such as antibiotics or probiotics to mitigate cognitive or neural symptoms of FASD affected individuals. </p>

Les communautés bactériennes sont constituées d’un grand éventail d’espèces pouvant interagir entre elles dans des environnements spatialement hétérogènes tels que le sol, les plantes ou l'intestin humain. À quel point ces interactions stimulent ou entravent la diversité du microbiome demeure inconnu. Historiquement, deux hypothèses ont été proposées pour expliquer comment les interactions interespèces pourraient influencer la diversité. L’hypothèse ‘l’écologie contrôle’ (EC) prédit une relation négative, dans laquelle l'évolution ou la migration de nouvelles espèces est freinée à mesure que les niches se saturent. En revanche, l’hypothèse ‘la diversité engendre la diversité’ (DBD) prédit une relation positive, où la diversité existante favorise l'accumulation d'une plus grande diversité à travers des interactions telles que la construction de niche. De nombreuses études ont investigué ces modèles chez les vertébrés ou les plantes, et certaines les ont testés sur des bactéries en culture ; mais le modèle qui régit les communautés bactériennes naturelles demeure inconnu. En utilisant les données du gène ARN ribosomique 16S provenant d’un large éventail de microbiomes, j'ai montré une relation positive générale entre la diversité des taxons et la diversité des communautés de niveaux taxonomiques plus élevés. Cette observation est conforme à l’hypothèse du DBD, mais cette tendance positive plafonne à des niveaux élevés de diversité en raison des limites physiques de la niche. Ensuite, j'ai observé que le modèle DBD restait valide à une résolution plus fine, en analysant la variation génétique intra espèce dans les métagénomes des microbiomes intestinaux humains. Conformément au DBD, j'ai observé que le polymorphisme génétique ainsi que le nombre de souches intra espèces étaient positivement corrélés avec la diversité Shannon de la communauté. Dans le chapitre 3, j'ai examiné les interactions antagonistes entre V. cholerae et ses phages virulents et la manière dont ces interactions affectaient le cours de l’infection et la diversité génétique de V. cholerae chez les patients infectés. J'ai quantifié les abondances relatives de V. cholerae et des phages virulents associés dans plus de 300 métagénomes provenant de selles de patients atteints de choléra, tout en tenant compte de leur exposition aux antibiotiques. Les phages et les antibiotiques ont supprimé V. cholerae et ont été associés à une déshydratation légère chez les patients. J'ai également investigué les mécanismes de défense contre les phages dans V. cholerae et découvert que les éléments connus de résistance aux phages (integrative conjugative elements, ICEs) étaient associés à de faibles rapports phage: V. cholerae. J’ai pu montrer aussi que lorsque les ICEs ne sont pas détectés, la résistance aux phages semble être acquise par l’accumulation de mutations ponctuelles non synonymes. Mes résultats valident que les phages virulents sont un facteur qui protège contre le choléra tout en sélectionnant la résistance dans le génome de V. cholerae. / Bacterial communities harbor a broad range of species interacting within spatially heterogeneous environments such as soil, plants or the human gut. The extent to which these interactions drive or impede microbiome diversity is not well understood. Historically, two hypotheses have been suggested to explain how species interactions could influence diversity. The ‘Ecological Controls’ (EC) hypothesis predicts a negative relationship, where the evolution or migration of novel species is constrained as niches become filled. In contrast, the ‘Diversity Begets Diversity’ (DBD) hypothesis predicts a positive relationship, with existing diversity promoting the accumulation of further diversity via niche construction and other interactions. Many studies investigated these models in vertebrates or plants, some focused on cultured bacteria, but we still lack insights into how natural communities are assembled in the context of these two hypotheses. Using 16S RNA gene amplicon data across a broad range of microbiomes, I showed a general positive relationship between taxa diversity and community diversity at higher taxonomic levels, consistent with DBD. Due to niche’ limits, this positive trend plateaus at high levels of community diversity. Then, I found that DBD holds at a finer resolution by analyzing intra-species strain and nucleotide variation in sampled metagenomes from human gut microbiomes. Consistent with DBD, I observed that both intra-species polymorphism and strain number were positively correlated with community Shannon diversity. In Chapter 3, I investigated the antagonistic interactions between V. cholerae and its virulent phages and how these interactions affect the course of the infection and the within V. cholerae genetic diversity in natural infections. I quantified relative abundances of Vibrio cholerae (Vc) and associated phages in 300 metagenomes from cholera patients stool, while accounting for antibiotic exposure. Both phages and antibiotics suppressed V. cholerae and were inversely associated with severe dehydration. I also looked at V. cholerae phage-defense mechanisms and found that known phage-resistance elements (integrative conjugative elements, ICEs) were associated with lower phage:V. cholerae ratios. In the absence of detectable ICEs, phages selected for nonsynonymous point mutations in the V. cholerae genome. My findings validate that phages may protect against severe cholera while also selecting for resistance in the V. cholerae genome within infected patients.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common and deadly cancers in the western world. The incidence of CRC shows the tendency to rise with the increase of obesity, which is caused by current increase in fat intake, suggesting the correlation between CRC and high-fat diet (HFD). HFD-induced obesity causes gut inflammation which is also noticed in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and CRC and can be seen as an important factor in CRC development. Moreover, it has been demonstrated, that while both sexes are at risk of developing CRC, men have higher incidence compared to women, showing the protective effect of estrogen. In addition, since gut microbiome is first to respond to colon inflammation, we hypothesized, that intestinal estrogen signaling could contribute to reduced initiation and progression of colon cancer by modifying the microbiota composition. For that, two experiments with two different mouse models were conducted. First part of the study concentrated on the effect of (HFD, 60%) and different estrogenic ligands (17-β estradiol, and DPN) on microbiota. Bioinformatics analysis on whole genome sequencing (WGS) data and qPCR validation were used as the methods. Here we found that estrogenic ligands achieved restoration of close-to-normal microflora after significant change initiated by HFD. We also found that microbiome in males showed stronger reaction to HFD than female microbiome, implying protective actions in females. Furthermore, the effect of ligands also proved to be stronger in males. Second part of the study concentrated on the effect of estrogen receptor β (ERβ) on microbiota for which ERβ knockout mice were used in addition to cancerogenic AOM/DSS treatment. Bioinformatics analysis on WGS data was used as the method. We found that female mice were more affected by AOM/DSS treatment compared to males, especially the mice with knockout gene. The genotype alone, however, resulted in very few differences. In summary, this project shows the effect of HFD, estrogen and ERβ expression on gut microbiota diversity. It shows that microbiome of male mice is more susceptible to dietary changes and estrogen supplementation. Likewise, it demonstrates, that the microbiome of females reacts strongly to combination of carcinogenic treatment and lack of iERβ.

<p>Accumulating evidence from randomized-controlled, full-feeding trials suggests neutral to beneficial effects of consuming lean and unprocessed red meat within a healthy dietary pattern on cardiovascular health. It is unclear how red meat interacts with the dietary pattern and the host in mediating its health effects. The gut microbiome provides a novel perspective in understanding the diet-host relationship for its abilities to metabolize dietary components including those within red meat and influence cardiovascular health. Prior to starting our study, we identified a lack of evidence in the English literature for the effects of consuming lean red meat, in unprocessed or processed forms, on gut microbiota in the context of a controlled healthy dietary pattern. Our findings presented in this dissertation demonstrate differential effects of consuming unprocessed versus processed red meat on gut microbiota. Consistent with previous research, we observed cardiovascular improvements induced by the healthy dietary pattern independent of lean red meat intakes among young adults with apparently healthy cardiovascular profiles. Importantly, with three intervention periods, we found consistent and reproducible changes in both gut microbiota and cardiovascular risk factors when repeatedly adopting and abandoning a healthy dietary pattern. Collectively, findings in this dissertation highlight the importance of gut microbiota in potentially mediating or responding to diet-induced cardiovascular improvements. Future research should investigate the changes in the function of gut microbiota induced by healthy dietary patterns containing red meat. Studies assessing the unique food matrix of processed versus unprocessed animal- or plant-based protein-rich foods are also warranted. Additionally, dietary strategies should focus on promoting healthy dietary modifications and enhancing dietary adherence for long-term cardiovascular benefits. </p>