Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study examined the effect of a mental training program on the performance of eight-tonine- year-old male gymnasts in the acquisition and execution of a newly learned gymnastic element, namely the headspring. Twenty-five gymnasts, all with one-year experience in gymnastics, were tested on the four prerequisite elements for the headspring. The selected group was randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group respectively. The experimental group received six weekly mental training interventions, consisting of an adapted progressive relaxation approach with deepening techniques and imagery. In addition to the mental training interventions the experimental group took part in the weekly physical training program. The control group only received the physical training. The gymnasts were evaluated on a daily basis to monitor their progress. The headspring was evaluated by means of a post-intervention testing. A pre- and post-intervention interview was also conducted with all the gymnasts to determine qualitatively whether the mental training influenced the gymnasts' physical symptoms, cognitions and emotions during a competition situation. Interjudge reliability coefficients were also calculated for the pre- and posttests in order to establish to what degree the judges evaluated the elements uniformly. The results of the daily-progression testing indicated that the control group performed significantly better than the experimental group on one occasion, namely the session before the first mental training session was introduced to the experimental group. The experimental group, however, performed significantly better than the control group on two occasions just before and just after the third mental training session. The results of the post-intervention testing indicated that the experimental group did not perform significantly better than the control group during the execution of the headspring. The experimental group did, however, show a clear non-significant tendency to perform better than the control group during the daily-progression testing and the post-intervention testing. The pre- and post-intervention interviews indicated that the control group, in comparison with the experimental group, reported the same number of positive physical symptoms, cognitions and emotions before and after the experiment. The experimental group reported fewer positive physical symptoms during a competition situation, but more thoughts about the correct execution of the headspring and more positive emotions during competitions were reported after the experiment. The inter-judge reliability coefficients indicated that the judges evaluated the elements in the pretest more uniformly. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Met hierdie studie is gepoog om vas te stel watter effek 'n sielkundige inoefeningsprogram met die aanleer en uitvoering van 'n nuutaangeleerde gimnastiekelement, naamlik die kopwip, op agt- tot nege-jarige seunsgimnaste gehad het. Vyf en twingtig gimnaste, wat almal een jaar gimnastiekondervinding het, is getoets met betrekking tot die vier voorvereistes van die kopwip. Die geselekteerde groep is ewekansig ingedeel in 'n eksperimentele en kontrolegroep onderskeidelik. Die eksperimentele groep het ses weeklike sielkundige inoefeningsessies gehad, bestaande uit 'n gewysigde progressiewe ontspanningsbenadering met verdiepingstegnieke en visualisering. Benewens die sielkundige inoefeningsprogram is hulle weekliks aan die fisiese afrigtingsprogram blootgestel. Die kontrolegroep het slegs die fisiese afrigtingsprogram ontvang. Al die subjekte is op 'n daaglikse basis geëvalueer om hul stapsgewyse vordering te monitor. Die kopwip as geheel is deur middel van 'n natoets geëvalueer. 'n Voor- en na-onderhoud is met elke gimnas gevoer om kwalitatief vas te stelof die eksperiment 'n verandering m die gimnaste se rapportering van fisiese simptome, kognisies en emosies tydens 'n kompetisie teweeggebring het. lnterbeoordelaarbetroubaarheidskoeffisiënte is bereken vir beide die voor- en natoets om te bepaal tot watter mate die drie beoordelaars se punte ooreengestem het. Die resultate van die daaglikse evaluering toon dat die kontrolegroep tydens een toetsgeleentheid, naamlik die sessie voor die eerste sielkundige inoefeningsessie op die eksperimentele groep toegepas is, beduidend beter as die eksperimentele groep gevaar het. Die eksprimentele groep het egter by twee toetsgeleenthede, naamlik dié net voor en net na die derde sielkundige inoefeningsessie beduidend beter as die kontrolegroep gevaar. Die resultate van die natoets toon dat die eksperimentele groep nie beduidend beter as die kontrolegroep tydens die uitvoering van die kopwip as geheel gevaar het nie. Die eksperimentele groep het 'n nie-beduidende tendens getoon om beter te presteer tydens die daaglikse evaluering en tydens die natoets. Die voor- en na-onderhoude het getoon dat die kontrolegroep, in vergelyking met die eksperimentele groep, dieselfde hoeveelheid positiewe fisiese simptome, kognisies en emosies na die eksperiment gerapporteer het. Die eksperimentele groep het minder positiewe, fisiese simptome na afloop van die eksperiment gerapporteer, maar verbreding van hul kognisies rakende die korrekte uitvoering van die kopwip en die toon van meer positiewe emosies tydens kompetisies is na afloop van die ondersoek gerapporteer. Die interbeoordelaar-betroubaarheidskoeffisiënte het getoon dat die beoordelaars meer eenvormig tydens die voortoets beoordeel het.

The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of Olympic inclusion on sport through the case study of trampolining in England. This was considered in terms of changes to elite trampolining, recreational trampolining and school trampolining across the dimensions of organisational structure, funding and support, and underlying policy. This has been achieved through constructing a primarily qualitative piece of work underpinned by a critical realist ontology and epistemology. 45 individuals involved in the sport of trampolining or working in the more general sport delivery system were interviewed using semi-structured interviews. Most of the direct implications of the inclusion of trampolining in the Olympics have only affected the elite level of the sport. Adding trampolining to the Olympic programme was viewed as a very positive thing by interviewees involved in the sport because it was seen to improve the status of the sport. The forced merger of the British Trampoline Federation with British Gymnastics received significant criticism from former British Trampoline Federation members due to a perceived loss of power and autonomy. However this amalgamation did raise standards of governance and management in elite trampolining, as did increased expectations from organisations such as UK Sport. As a consequence of the increased professionalisation of the governance of elite trampolining, there is now more tension between paid staff and volunteers. Since the sport has been in the Olympic programme elite trampolining has benefitted from significant funding from UK Sport and also support from the English Institute of Sport and the British Olympic Association. Assistance from all three organisations is extremely ring-fenced and channelled towards the elite. For example, English Institute of Sport support is totally focussed on a very limited number of named individuals who compete at an international level. Funding from UK Sport is dependent on British Gymnastics meeting ambitious performance targets in trampolining and so forms an incentive contract which has dictated the focus within the National Governing Body. Hence the balance between elite trampolining and sport for all has swung towards the higher echelon of the sport from both economic and structural perspectives. Few benefits from trampolining being in the Olympic programme filter down to the recreational and school levels of the sport and those that have tend to be indirect impacts. This is partly due to a lack of coherent governance both within the sport and also in terms of the wider sporting landscape. Support given to recreational trampolining by English Gymnastics, Sport England and County Sport Partnerships, and support given to school trampolining by the British Schools Gymnastics Association, the Youth Sport Trust and School Sport Partnerships appears to be relatively unaffected by trampolining being in the Olympics. Also there are more pressing issues and priorities in recreational and school trampolining which prevented the Olympic inclusion of trampolining having a greater impact. For example, at a recreational level there is often a shortage of trampoline clubs to cater for demand and similarly in schools there is often a lack of trampolines and trained teachers.

This thesis investigated the development and effectiveness of a perceptual training programmes for coaches and judges in gymnastics. Study one examined the variability of visual search for coaches and judges when viewing handspring vaults. The study found that there were no significant differences between the mean number of fixations, fixation duration and number of areas fixated across two time-points four weeks apart. In addtion, the natural range of variation of the number of fixations, fixation duration and number of area fixated was found to be 9/7%, 5.7% and 14.2% (expressed as coefficient of variation). Study two examined differences between expert and novice gymnastics coaches' and judges' visual search. Analysis of gaze behaviour showed that experts make significantly more fixations of significantly longer duration to significantly fewer areas than novies. There was no significant difference between the outcome juddgements made by the expert and novice coaches and judges. These findings suggest that visual search may be a contributing factor to expert performance in judgement formation. Study three explored the visual search pattern and knowledge used by expert coaches and judges when making decisions. Data were gathered through the used of eye-tracking and semi-structered interviews. Analyses established that experts tend to fixate on the torso and shoulders of gymnasts throughout the vault, and that there are three to four specific areas which are explored during each phase of a vault. Study four examined the effectiveness of a perceptual training programme for a perceptual traning and control group. Fixation number, fixation duration, number of areas fixated and outcome judgement were recorded at baseline, immediently after the programme and four weeks after it had been withdrawn. 2 (control vs. perceputal training) x 3 (intervention phase) ANOVA's with repeated measures showed that the perceptual training group produced significantly less error at the retention stage for number of fixations (F (2,6) = 12.57, p = 0.01, effect size n2 = .81), at the post-test for fixation duration (F (2,6) = 7.49, p = 0.02, effect size n2 = .71). However post-hoc analyses could not detect the difference for number of areas fixated. In study five, four participants that took part in the experiental condition watched a perceptual training DVD twice a week for six weeks. The case study data showed that the expert and novices who watched the perceptual training DVD made changes to their visual search variables and judgements and therefore became more analogous to the experts from study three to baseline to the post-test. However, only the novices retained the beneficial effects of the intervention. To conclude, this programme of research examinaed the development and effectiveness of a perceptual training programee for coaches' and judges' in gymnastics. This thesis suggests that a perceptual training programme based on the visual search and declarative knowledge of expert coaches and judges is effective at altering visual search and enhancing decision making for noveice coaches and judges. This research programme therefore promotes the use of perceptual training programmes for novice coaches and judges in sport.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the personality characteristics of high school male gymnasts and the personality characteristics of high school football athletes and non-athletes. An attempt was made to answer three specific questions: I. Do personality differences exist between the gymnastic group and the non-athletic group? II. Do personality differences exist between the gymnastic group and the football group? III. Do personality differences exist between the football group and the non-athletic group?

The aim of this thesis is to explore through historical and practical research, the use of gymnastics-based practices for contemporary performer training. This thesis addresses the following key questions: What are gymnastics-based practices? How have gymnastics-based practices already influenced performer training, particularly in the work of François Delsarte, Rudolph Laban, and Jacques Lecoq? How can gymnastics-based practices be understood, applied, and developed in order to contribute to performance/performer training? The practical investigation employs the use of gymnastics-based practices in a series of three studio-based projects which focus on the development of the training. Project 1 explores gymnastics-based practices in relation to my own process as a performer. In Project 2, I apply gymnastics-based practices to the facilitation of a group-devised performance. Project 3 uses gymnastics-based practices to facilitate the actor in character development, vocal work, and performance of a naturalistic text. In this manner, this thesis has developed a set of exercises, workshops, and frameworks which draw on gymnastics-based practices to activate the performer in several different contexts.

Imagery is a mental skill that has been researched extensively over the last 40 years (Weinberg, 2008). Experimental and applied investigations have demonstrated that imagery positively affects sport performance as well as a number of psychological characteristics of athletes (Feltz & Landers, 1983; Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005). Studies have also revealed that athletes use imagery for multiple functions (both cognitive and motivational) in a variety of sports (both open and closed) and in and out of competition (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998; Munroe, Giaccobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000). Prior to the present study, however, research had not examined athletes’ experience of imagery in depth. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore athletes’ lived experience of using imagery in their sport. To accomplish this goal phenomenological interviews were conducted with ten female collegiate gymnasts (M age = 22.2 yr). After a brief period of introductory conversation each participant was asked to respond to the following open-ended statement: “Think of a time when you have used imagery in your sport and describe that to me as fully as possible.” Follow-up questions were asked only to gain further clarification or to obtain additional details to gymnasts’ comments. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Qualitative analysis of the transcripts revealed a total of 693 meaning units, which were then grouped into sub-themes and major themes. A final thematic structure revealed five major dimensions that characterized these gymnasts’ experience of using imagery: preparing for movement, mentally preparing, feeling the skill, controlling perspective/speed/effort, and time and place. The most significant findings of the present study were that these gymnasts (a) varied the speed of their imagery (real and slow time), (b) used imagery during a performance bout as well as in preparation for performance, (c) combined physical motion with their imagery to increase the feel of the skill, and (d) felt a persistent need to make their imagery perfect. These results extend the findings of previous imagery research and offer several implications for coaches and practitioners interested in using imagery with gymnasts.

Abstrakt Det finns blandade åsikter om att en grad av rörlighet över det normala skulle vara främjande eller hämmande för prestationen och därför var syftet i denna studie att mäta rörlighet och den maximala hoppförmågan hos gymnaster, cheerleaders och individer som utövar parkour för att undersöka om rörligheten har någon betydelse för spänst/ explosivitet. Undersökningsgruppen bestod av 15 friska deltagare varav 8 män och 7 kvinnor i åldrarna 18-32 år. Deltagarna genomförde tre Countermovement jump hopp (CMJ) och static jump där markering gjordes på en vägg för att mäta hopphöjd. Enbens längdhopp mättes också. Aktiv rörlighet mättes i fotled vid både dorsalflexion, plantarflexion och sit and reach (bakre rörelsekedjan). Databearbetning gjordes i datorprogrammet IBM SPSS Statistics 21. Männen hoppade högre och längre än kvinnorna där skillnaden var signifikant vid alla hopptest. En signifikant skillnad i rörlighet fanns mellan kön där kvinnorna var rörligare i vänster dorsalflexion. Parkour gruppen hoppade högre än övriga gruppen (Gymnastik & Cheerleading) där skillnaden var signifikant vid samtliga hopptest. Skillnad i rörlighet mellan parkour och övriga var endast signifikant vid vänster plantarflexion. Sambandsanalys visade starkast korrelation mellan plantarflexion och hoppförmåga där endast vänster plantarflexion och static jump var statistiskt säkerställt. Det finns indikationer som visar att spänst och explosivitet har ett samband med rörlighet men det saknas bevis för detta i den aktuella studien. Flera faktorer kan ha betydelse för hoppförmågan som bland annat teknik, disciplin och kön.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Chicago, Dept. of History, March 1999. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the Internet.

Inaug.-diss.--Erlangen. / Vita.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1967. / eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references.