This thesis reports on a UK-based ethnography of prenatal screening for Down’s syndrome across two hospitals. By studying the mundane and routine practices of the clinic, I initially capture how Down’s syndrome screening is organised and how its sedimentation as a taken-for-granted aspect of pregnancy contributes to the procedure being ‘downgraded’. This downgrading accomplishes hierarchies of valued/valueless work and professional specialities and also, therefore, of certain professional identities. In what follows, I explore the conduct of care and how professionals detach from Down’s syndrome screening by assigning responsibility for decision-making to parents-to-be. Professionals’ devotion to the rhetoric of ‘informed choice’ and ‘non-directive care’ also naturalises screening as a ‘normal’ part of pregnancy, this routinisation being extended by parents-to-be (often with professionals) privileging the ‘social’ rather than ‘medical’ dimension of ultrasound scanning. I continue by analysing how Down’s syndrome itself is constituted both inside and outside screening encounters. During consultations, the condition is rarely discussed and is substituted with dominant discourses of ‘risk’, ‘problem’, and ‘abnormality’. The condition is subsequently constructed as a negative pregnancy outcome. This intersects with the production and reproduction of ideas around perfection in the social practices and cultural materials of the clinic and how, if a diagnosis is established, the unborn ‘baby’ is recast as a ‘foetus’. By making this move, the unborn baby is denied personhood and a termination of pregnancy is made possible. To conclude, I highlight how the routine practice of prenatal screening for Down’s syndrome has transformed antenatal medicine, invigorated parental expectations, shaped issues around reproductive politics, and cultivated certain body-society relations.

Over the past two decades sexuality and reproduction have proved potent and contested subjects. After the unexpected collapse of the state socialist systems, societies facing uncertainty and dislocation have turned both to the allure of ‘the west’ and to pre-socialist traditional values of family and gender. Along with this, aspirations of moving closer to Europe sits alongside a resurgent nationalist sentiment throughout the region, and it is sexuality and reproduction which has become a particularly contested battleground, as the female reproductive body has become a metaphor for the vitality and viability of the nation-state. Discourses of demographic crisis, calls to produce more (indigenous) children to increase the population and ensure the stability and viability of the state, and proscription of so-called ‘deviant’ (defined as non-heterosexual/non-reproductive) sexualities have all gained in currency as the nations of the region try to establish themselves as sustainable entities following the years of state-sponsored paternalism. At the same time, western nations and donor agencies offer support to redevelop and redesign out-of-date systems and bureaucracies and the opportunity to modernise and enjoy the benefits of capitalism and liberal democracy. A particular focus on developing civil society along with the reform of state institutions widens the social marketplace still further. It is against this backdrop that policy makers and service providers attempt to develop and provide health services. Public health is a useful barometer of what is happening in society, as it reflects the effects of wider socio-economic and political trends. Within this, the study of sexual and reproductive health is crucial as it also has the ability to illuminate the differential effects of societal change on different groups within society, such as women or those from minorities. It also powerfully illustrates the contestations going on in wider society around meanings of the moral and healthy, as sexuality and reproduction are issues pertinent to the continued reproduction of states and other ‘communities of power’. This thesis is a study of the experiences and perceptions of service providers in the field of sexual and reproductive health in Romania and the Republic of Moldova. Through interviews with service providers in both state and civil society sectors as well as regional and national authorities and international donor agencies, and an extensive media review of the portrayal of sexuality, reproduction and sexual and reproductive health, opportunities and barriers to providing accessible and responsive services within the contested arena of two postsocialist countries with much in common historically and culturally but following very different paths in the contemporary period are explored. The continuing importance of sexual and reproductive health as a category of study which can illuminate wider macro-level debates on national identity and vitality, as well as the importance of discursive battles over control of meanings, are amply illustrated in the thesis. In particular the relation between health and morality is extensively explored, and the relevance of an area studies approach to this wider topic is demonstrated. The thesis finds that it is vital to consider sexual and reproductive health services within their wider sociocultural context and that transnationally-funded initiatives do not take full account of the multiplicity of meanings and values underpinning the reactions of target populations to their services; indeed services are often framed as representing an unwelcome invasion of ‘alien’ morality. Ultimately providers and funders need to take the moral understandings of their target populations very seriously if they are to overcome the considerable opposition to their services.

The research undertaken in this thesis represents an inquiry into the nature of public space. Its scope is threefold, first, to propose a new way of conceptualising the publicness of public space, defined as the sum of characteristics that make a public space public; second, to create a new methodology for practically assessing public places and third, to test this on several new public place case studies. The entire thesis is based on a new understanding of publicness as having a dual nature: it can be grasped simultaneously as a cultural reality and as a historical reality. Publicness as a cultural reality means that all public places, created at a certain point in time and in a particular socio-cultural setting, can be understood as reflection of a common held view of what the ideal public space is. In order to grasp this ideal and use it as a standard to measure the publicness of new public places, the researcher gathered and filtered the different conceptions and definitions in the field. It was found out that five key meta-themes determine, through their interaction, the publicness of a public place today, in the western world: ownership, physical configuration, animation, control and civility. These have been gathered into the theoretical Star Model of Publicness which was then translated into a practical tool for measuring public places. However, a public place can be grasped not only as a cultural artefact, it is also as the product of a historical process of placemaking. Its publicness results from the interactions, negotiations and decisions made during its development process. It is in other words, a historical reality. As a result, it was considered that assessing the publicness of a public place comprises two things: first, a measurement of the site as a snapshot against the existent standard of publicness and second, an explanation of that measurement though exploring its development process. This was applied in practice, on three new public places created on the regenerated waterfront of the Clyde, in Glasgow and conclusions were drawn regarding the robustness and usefulness of this approach. This is a pilot project undertaken with limited resources and by a single researcher in one location/city and is thus not meant to be ‘an ultimate truth’, a unique formula for assessing publicness. Instead, it represents only the beginning step towards a more objective and inclusive way of analysing the publicness of public places.

Through a series of critical interventions in contemporary political thought, utilising the concept of liminality, this thesis points towards a Foucauldian ontology of the conditions necessary for social criticism. Beginning with a critical investigation of Foucault's archaeological and genealogical works (chapter one) the idea that Foucault's "analytic of the limit" provides sufficient grounding for a critical theory of society is challenged. While Foucault's approach contains many insights into the character of social relations it ultimately embodies a problematic transcendental conception of the present. It is argued that Foucault's early works require an "analytic of liminality" if this problem is to be avoided. Chapters two, three and four serve the following functions: firstly, they explore the concept of liminality as a feature of (respectively) the present, the self and everyday speech acts; secondly, they are critical interrogations of non-Foucauldian accounts of social criticism - from neo-Marxism and postmodernism, through communitarianism to critical theory; thirdly, they introduce a series of concepts that are sensitive to the "paradoxical" condition of liminality thereby suggesting the themes that a Foucauldian ontology of social criticism must endeavour to incorporate. In chapter five it is argued that Foucault's later works implicitly contain an analytic of liminality that entails a non-transcendental account of the present. Integrating the later work into his earlier work, therefore, provides a greater theoretical understanding of Foucault's ontology of social criticism. It is concluded that Foucault (and poststructuralism in general) represents a distinctive and convincing voice in the debates concerning the character of social criticism.

This thesis is basically in line with a common standpoint according to which Adam Smith's methodology deserves to be given the main priority in order to understand best his system of moral philosophy or `social science' in a modern sense. In this connection Smith's `metaphysics' is treated as an extremely important element to which our attention has to be drawn when we are concerned with his system of social science. This point of view differs primarily from an interpretative framework which seems to be still influential; a perspective from which a linkage between metaphysics and science is ignored. Instead, this work is based on the argument that metaphysics which may be defined as confirmable yet irrefutable (thus extra-scientific) doctrines is at work in the background of scientific activities in such as way that the former proposes an outline of scientific research in terms of providing a general outlook whereby a coherent type of data may be sorted out, arranged and organized. The `predominant' aim of this work on the basis of the view just mentioned is to seek a linkage between Smith's study of natural theology, which is responsible for providing an influential metaphysical doctrine, and other disciplines such as ethics and economics in his scheme of moral philosophy. I begin by identifying Smith's three metaphysical doctrines, the doctrine of mechanistic determinism, organismic philosophy, and the belief in a benevolent God (Chapter 2). Chapter 3 is designed to identify Smith's metatheoretical principles which, in conjunction with his metaphysics which is rooted in his theological outlook, serve to regulate or shape his `theoretical' analysis of man and society.

This research emphasizes the active influence of a firm on network outcomes through its networking behaviour: the antecedent efforts undertaken by the firm to develop, manage, and leverage its networks for actual value creation in enabling/driving internationalization. Networking behaviour at the level of the firm is investigated as a core explanatory factor in the internationalization of SMEs in this study. The influence of the key decision-maker on the networking behaviour of SMEs is also examined. Eight qualitative case studies and a quantitative survey were conducted respectively in two stages to draw empirical evidence from the Chinese context. The in-depth case studies provide rich information about the latent factors (variables) of the constructs of the study and their associations, from which hypotheses for quantitative research are formulated. Case findings also support more comprehensive interpretation of the quantitative results. Quantitative analysis of survey data allows statistical validation and generalization of the findings. Findings of key behavioural aspects of networking concerning the likelihood of SMEs achieving (rapid) internationalization are derived. Network resources are identified to have possibly negative in addition to positive influences on internationalization. The findings highlight the significance of deliberate networking behaviour undertaken by a firm in pursuit of rapid internationalization. The research conceptualizes a precise causal model capturing the networking behaviour of the firm as antecedent to explaining and predicting network outcomes in the specific context of internationalization. The research advances an integrative perspective – with theoretical underpinnings from the network perspective, the internationalization model and the resource-based view – to provide more comprehensive understanding pertaining to networks and the internationalization of SMEs.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, neo-liberal models of governance have become dominant, and have increasingly been justified through the employment of human rights discourses. However, the increased use of human rights discourses has not resulted in the increased realisation of human rights, and feminists have highlighted how the gendered nature of transitions to democracy and the market have, in fact, limited women's access to rights. The profoundly negative impacts of marketisation, particularly for women, have been starkly illustrated in the social and economic transformations taking place in contemporary Russia. While the lack of realisation of human rights in Russia has been well-documented, much of this research has focused on macro-level analyses of Russia's consolidation of pre-defined human rights norms, or in highlighting examples of particular human rights violations. While the recognition and critique of human rights violations is an extremely important area of research, concentrating on pre-defined norms often fails to show the complexity of understandings and uses of human rights discourses in everyday life. Moreover, there is a lack of research that explores women's perceptions of human rights and rights based approaches, which is surprising given the international promotion of rights-based approaches as a means of women's empowerment. This thesis addresses this gap by critically evaluating the empowerment potential of human rights and rights-based approaches for women in the unique transitional context of post-Soviet Russia. The thesis draws on analysis of Russian press discourses and readers' letters to advice pages, and also from data generated in open-ended questionnaires, ethnographic in-depth interviews and interviews with local community and political elites in the provincial Russian city of Ul'ianovsk. The thesis shows the ways in which, both cultural norms and practical constraints impact on the perceived legitimacy of certain categories of rights, which in turn determine which issues are viewed as legitimate rights claims for women. Analysis of respondents' perceptions of rights indicate that, despite clearly identifiable examples of rights violations against women, the backlash to Soviet enforced equality has delegitimised claims for 'women's rights' protection. Moreover, respondents' also disassociate their claims from human rights, which are perceived to relate to specific examples of violations perpetrated by the state that predominantly affect men. Thus, women's rights claims have been re-privatised and re-conceptualised as personal problems to be resolved by women individually. While respondents did not perceive their everyday problems to be women's rights or human rights claims, respondents did talk about 'rights' and were attempting to access and claim rights. The thesis shows how the continued legitimacy of Soviet social and economic rights led respondents to employ rights discourses to express a sense of loss of previously held rights, and also to articulate their confusion and frustration over the shifting legitimacy of rights that has resulted in the need to 'claim' what was previously guaranteed. However, respondents' were attempting to negotiate these shifts in legitimacy and attempt to claim rights, but identified several practical constraints that make this a difficult process. I show that while respondents' are attempting to use rights-based approaches, this has not resulted in women's empowerment. Analysis of respondents' experiences of making a legal claim shows the profoundly negative and disempowering effects that legalistic approaches to claiming rights can have for women in transitional contexts. While the thesis highlights women's experience in transitional contexts, these findings can be used to reassess claims about the empowerment potential of human rights and rights based approaches for women globally. The thesis concludes by arguing that Russian women's lack of rights protection is not a result of women's lack of awareness of, or unwillingness to use rights-based approaches, but a result of their inability to access rights in a neo-liberal cultural and economic climate, which can be applied to the experiences of women globally.

This thesis examines whether the introduction of the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 and the establishment of Strategic Coordinating Groups (SCGs) within an integrated emergency management framework provides Scotland with an effective crisis response structure and resilience. A key aspect of resilience is the ability of the SCGs to learn from previous experiences. This research will consider the organisational learning of the SCGs to determine whether it is as effective as it could be. It first focuses on the organisational structure of the SCG and analyses it in terms of network management to determine its crisis management effectiveness. It then considers whether the SCGs are suitably adaptive to crises and learn from the experience of managing them and thereby enhance their preventative capability, as envisaged by the resilience policy. The principal argument is that the current structure does not ensure effective organisational learning and therefore Scotland’s resilience is diminished. Design/Methodology/Approach A qualitative approach is used. Data is gathered through interviews and non-participant observations, and interpreted by a combination of inductive and deductive approaches. The use of triangulation of data enhances its validity. Systems theory provides analytical frameworks to examine the SCG structure and processes, and to determine whether SCGs successfully achieve the desired outcome of resilience and effective crisis management. Findings/Practical Implications Using the systems approach identifies that real world SCGs have a number of variances from the ideal state. The current SCG structure is complex which makes communication and coordination challenging, which undermines the SCG crisis response. The absence of a dynamic monitoring mechanism within the SCG makes it difficult to learn lessons from previous crises and adapt to environmental changes. The thesis concludes by making a number of recommendations for improving SCG crisis management effectiveness and resilience.

Authentication mechanisms provide the cornerstone for security for many distributed systems, especially for increasingly popular online applications. For decades, widely used, traditional authentication methods included passwords and PINs that are now inadequate to protect online users and organizations from ever more sophisticated attacks. This study proposes an improvement to traditional authentication mechanisms. The solution introduced here includes a one-time-password (OTP) and incorporates the concept of multiple levels and multiple channels – features that are much more successful than traditional authentication mechanisms in protecting users' online accounts from being compromised. This research study reviews and evaluates current authentication classes and mechanisms and proposes an authentication mechanism that uses a variety of techniques, including multiple channels, to resist attacks more effectively than most commonly used mechanisms. Three aspects of the mechanism were evaluated: 1. The security of multi-channel authentication (MCA) was evaluated in theoretical terms, using a widely accepted methodology. 2. The usability was evaluated by carrying out a user study. 3. Finally, the acceptability thereof was evaluated by asking the participants in study (2) specific questions which aligned with the technology acceptance model (TAM). The study’s analysis of the data, gathered from online questionnaires and application log tables, showed that most participants found the MCA mechanism superior to other available authentication mechanisms and clearly supported the proposed MCA mechanism and the benefits that it provides. The research presents guidelines on how to implement the proposed mechanism, provides a detailed analysis of its effectiveness in protecting users' online accounts against specific, commonly deployed attacks, and reports on its usability and acceptability. It represents a significant step forward in the evolution of authentication mechanisms meeting the security needs of online users while maintaining usability.

This thesis is concerned with approaches to policymaking analysis. It argues that dominant neo-pluralist theories of policymaking have limited explanatory force. This arises from the method of inquiry, which necessarily limits the scope of analysis. The emphasis on inductive methods, coupled with a narrow focus on nonformalised sub-state networks, produces a model which is a useful way of identifying non-state policy actors, but which has no explanatory capacity outside such networks. In particular two weaknesses in network analysis are highlighted as significant. The first is that neo-pluralism does not account for the possible constraint on meso-level activity by the state. The state's ability to constrain individual agency may arise either from its position as a distinct social actor, or from it being an aspect of structural constraint. As this latter point implies, the second key weakness with neo-pluralist network analysis is owing to its structural indeterminism. The thesis argues that an adequate account of the policymaking process must recognise the possibility of limits to actor autonomy which arise from individual interaction with structure. Although the argument is made for a structural dimension to policymaking analysis, it concedes the dangers of functionalism and determinism which can arise from the application of structural frameworks. Consequently, the thesis argues for a duality of structure and agency as the core of political analysis. This argument is made on theoretical grounds, and via discussion of an empirical case study of the EU Task Force Environment: Water. The argument then is for a dual approach to policymaking which utilises both inductive and deductive methods. It is argued (a) that a Marxist analysis of the state and the structural constraints of capitalism can be combined (although not integrated) with networks analysis in a dual approach, and (b) that this combination provides the best model of policymaking.