The local extinction of habitat patches and dispersal between the patches are important processes structuring animal populations in heterogeneous environments. Understanding these two processes is crucial for the conservation of wildlife populations in landscapes impacted by human land-use. Approximately 50% of the subtropical rainforest in South East Queensland, Australia has been lost to deforestation over the last 100 years. While large areas of rainforest are reserved, little is known about the distribution and population status of rainforest birds within smaller remnants in the region. The overall research problem for this thesis was to understand how deforestation and fragmentation of subtropical rainforest affects the occurrence of rainforest birds and the effective dispersal of a rainforest-restricted species, the logrunner (Orthonyx temminckii). Understanding why some bird species are lost from habitat patches while others remain will lead to improved conservation of extinction prone species in fragmented landscapes. Although the mechanisms underlying local extinctions are well established in temperate systems, the relative importance of local and regional processes on species occurrence in subtropical and tropical rainforests is poorly understood. Chapter 2 investigated the relative effects of life history and scale of habitat modification on avian site occupancy using observational data collected at 46 rainforest sites in South East Queensland. A probabilistic model for the joint site occupancy of 29 bird species was used to evaluate hypotheses for the effects of avian life history traits on the occurrence of multiple species. The single-species occurrence models incorporated habitat effects on detection, which may be especially important in rainforests because dense vegetation and idiosyncratic occurrence of species can interfere with sampling. Occupancy rates for each species were modelled to determine the relative influence of process operating at the stand, landscape and patch scales. The life history analysis indicated taxonomic Family, body mass, migratory strategy and feeding strata had large effects on avian site occupancy, whereas abundance traits such as mean density and extent of occurrence showed little predictive ability. After accounting for correlated extinction risk attributed to life history, the degradation of stand structure at the local scale was more important for species richness than habitat modification at landscape or patch scales. While individual species showed various responses to the different scales of habitat modification, the distribution of many species was limited by vegetation structure at the landscape scale. Maintaining stand basal area and restoring degraded rainforests at the local scale will increase the probability of occupancy for members of the rainforest bird community. However, revegetation and retention of forest cover at the landscape scale may be necessary for the successful colonisation of many species. Chapter 3 introduced a predictive hypothesis-driven approach for quantifying the relative contribution of historic and contemporary processes to genetic connectivity. Current analytic frameworks in population genetics have difficulty evaluating meaningful hypotheses about spatial processes in dynamic landscapes. Confronting genetic data with models of historic and contemporary landscapes allowed the identification of dispersal processes operating in naturally heterogeneous and human-altered systems. Two measures of indirect gene flow were estimated from microsatellite polymorphism among 11 logrunner populations. Of particular interest was how much information in the genetic data was attributable to processes occurring in a reconstructed historic landscape and a contemporary human-modified landscape. A linear mixed model was used to estimate appropriate sampling variance from non-independent data and information-theoretic model selection provided strength of evidence for alternate hypotheses. The historic and contemporary landscapes explained an equal proportion of variation in genetic differentiation and there was considerable evidence for a temporal shift in dispersal pattern. Migration rates estimated from genealogical information were primarily influenced by contemporary landscape change. Landscape heterogeneity appeared to facilitate gene flow prior to European settlement, but contemporary deforestation is rapidly becoming the most important barrier to logrunner dispersal. Understanding asymmetric dispersal is becoming an important consideration for the conservation metapopulations. Populations acting as net exporters of dispersing animals may be able to rescue local populations from extinction and allow metapopulations to persist in degraded landscapes impacted by habitat loss. In Chapter 4, I estimated bidirectional migration rates from genetic data to infer dispersal among 11 logrunner populations. The first question posed was, does logrunner dispersal correspond to the source-sink or balanced model of dispersal? The second question involved determining the strength of evidence for two hypotheses about how landscape structure has affected asymmetric dispersal. Hypothesis one proposed that asymmetric dispersal was primarily influenced by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Hypothesis two asserted that asymmetric dispersal was predominantly influenced by anthropogenic landscape change. The data were confronted with the alternate hypotheses using linear mixed models and landscape covariates extracted from digital maps. The results showed the direction of asymmetric dispersal was consistent with source-sink population structure. I also discovered that the asymmetry in dispersal was influenced more by anthropogenic landscape change than by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Intact landscapes were net exporters of dispersing logrunners while landscapes heavily impacted by rainforest clearing were net importers of individuals. Elevated immigration rates into landscapes impacted by rainforest clearing appeared to arrest population declines in accordance with the rescue effect. The primary conclusion emerging from the study of patch occupancy and dispersal was that logrunner populations in South East Queensland conformed to a mainland-island metapopulation. Asymmetric dispersal from the largest expanse of upland rainforest appeared to prevent fragmented rainforests in close proximity from going locally extinct. While the distribution of logrunners was limited by the spatial configuration of rainforest patches, other rainforest birds exhibited variable responses to scale of habitat modification. The most consistent pattern was several species dropping-out of the community in degraded stands affected by selective timber harvest. Deforestation at the landscape scale also played a role in the extremely low patch occupancy rates of Albert’s lyrebirds (Menura alberti) and green catbirds (Ailuroedus crassirostris).

The conversion of native forests to pastures and crops is one of the most extensive causes of deforestation worldwide. Concomitant with agricultural landscape modification are the processes of habitat loss and fragmentation, which are major causes of species’ extinctions, population declines and altered ecosystem functions. However, in many tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions, abandoned agricultural lands are reverting to regrowth or secondary forest, which represents an important opportunity for passive landscape restoration. Regrowth may be particularly important in highly modified landscapes, where the area of mature forest may be insufficient to support viable plant and animal communities without some form of restoration. Some studies of fauna populations in regrowth forest have found recovery of species richness within several decades, although recovery of species composition may take at least 100 years and some species may be permanently lost. While these findings are encouraging, they generally fail to account for the landscape context in which regrowth occurs and focus mainly on tropical forests. The aim of this thesis was to advance the understanding of fauna recovery in regrowth forests on abandoned agricultural land by: i) comparing woodland bird communities in a replicated chronosequence of semi-arid sub-tropical regrowth forests; and ii) quantifying how the ecological values of regrowth habitat vary among stand-, patch- and landscape-levels of ecological organisation. A review of 68 studies of fauna recovery in regrowth forests, revealed that current knowledge is limited by the predominance of studies conducted: in tropical rainforests; with minimal replication of sites; in landscapes within proximity of large tracts of relatively undisturbed mature forests; and with limited consideration of the influence of the spatial context on fauna recovery in regrowth forest. This study makes a significant contribution to understanding fauna recovery in regrowth forests by quantifying the recovery of estimated bird species richness to levels similar to mature forest, within a period of 30-60 years, in highly modified semi-arid agricultural landscapes in sub-tropical Australia. An ordination of the similarity in species composition among forest types also suggested that after 30-60 years regrowth bird communities are more similar to mature brigalow forest than the younger regrowth. This is important for the recovery of brigalow ecosystems, an endangered ecological community where regrowth is currently given minimal protection from further clearing. Comparisons of the importance of habitat attributes using model averaging and hierarchical partitioning of generalised linear models of the species richness of woodland birds showed that bird species richness was positively associated with patch age, and that stand-level factors such as grazing disturbance and the abundance of mistletoes (Amyema spp.) were also important. The spatial context of vegetation patches (size, shape and isolation) was equally important for bird species richness, with more species of woodland dependent, nectar/frugivores and non-ground foraging insectivores occurring in less modified landscape contexts, and the converse for generalist species, ground foraging insectivores and granivores. While a number of woodland dependent bird species known to be in decline in temperate woodlands of southern Australia were absent or rare in regrowth forests, several species (e.g., eastern yellow robin) also occupied regrowth habitats. This finding suggests that these more sensitive species may respond positively to landscape restoration through targeted retention of brigalow regrowth. The landscape-level amount of forest varied in importance among regrowth age classes and bird groups. In general, the amount and number of mature forest patches in the landscape were of lower importance than local attributes. However, the amount of mature forest and old regrowth (> 30 years) in the landscape did have an important positive influence on the number of woodland bird species and species’ abundance; suggesting that regrowth is making an important contribution to landscape recovery in the study area. Mistletoe abundance was strongly dependent on particular species of frugivores for seed dispersal (e.g., mistletoebird, spiny-cheeked honeyeater and painted honeyeater), and varied considerably among three sub-regions of the study area. In general, mistletoe abundance increased in linear patches and more highly modified landscapes but was also dependent on the abundance of seed dispersers and brigalow stand condition. These findings suggest that narrow linear patches in brigalow landscapes can have important conservation values for woodland birds. The study outcomes have important implications for research and management of regrowth vegetation, both within Australia and internationally. From an international perspective, the study highlights the need for greater consideration of the importance of regrowth forest in a landscape context for conserving and restoring fauna communities. From an Australian perspective, the study provides important baseline information for the conservation and management of woodland bird habitat in fragmented brigalow landscapes. Prior to this research, very little was known on the spatial ecology of woodland birds in the region. The study highlights the important conservation values of small and often linear mature brigalow patches for woodland birds and the considerable potential for restoration of habitat for a diverse range of species through the retention of regrowth vegetation. In particular, the research outcomes suggest that targeting the retention of regrowth towards increasing the size and reducing the isolation of mature brigalow forests may be an effective strategy to maximise biodiversity benefits. Brigalow regrowth stands will need to be retained for at least 60 years and probably longer to maintain viable woodland bird communities. For this to happen on a regional-scale, brigalow regrowth needs to be given greater recognition for potential biodiversity benefits either within a legislative framework or by incentive schemes to promote the long term persistence of regrowth habitat within the landscape.

The local extinction of habitat patches and dispersal between the patches are important processes structuring animal populations in heterogeneous environments. Understanding these two processes is crucial for the conservation of wildlife populations in landscapes impacted by human land-use. Approximately 50% of the subtropical rainforest in South East Queensland, Australia has been lost to deforestation over the last 100 years. While large areas of rainforest are reserved, little is known about the distribution and population status of rainforest birds within smaller remnants in the region. The overall research problem for this thesis was to understand how deforestation and fragmentation of subtropical rainforest affects the occurrence of rainforest birds and the effective dispersal of a rainforest-restricted species, the logrunner (Orthonyx temminckii). Understanding why some bird species are lost from habitat patches while others remain will lead to improved conservation of extinction prone species in fragmented landscapes. Although the mechanisms underlying local extinctions are well established in temperate systems, the relative importance of local and regional processes on species occurrence in subtropical and tropical rainforests is poorly understood. Chapter 2 investigated the relative effects of life history and scale of habitat modification on avian site occupancy using observational data collected at 46 rainforest sites in South East Queensland. A probabilistic model for the joint site occupancy of 29 bird species was used to evaluate hypotheses for the effects of avian life history traits on the occurrence of multiple species. The single-species occurrence models incorporated habitat effects on detection, which may be especially important in rainforests because dense vegetation and idiosyncratic occurrence of species can interfere with sampling. Occupancy rates for each species were modelled to determine the relative influence of process operating at the stand, landscape and patch scales. The life history analysis indicated taxonomic Family, body mass, migratory strategy and feeding strata had large effects on avian site occupancy, whereas abundance traits such as mean density and extent of occurrence showed little predictive ability. After accounting for correlated extinction risk attributed to life history, the degradation of stand structure at the local scale was more important for species richness than habitat modification at landscape or patch scales. While individual species showed various responses to the different scales of habitat modification, the distribution of many species was limited by vegetation structure at the landscape scale. Maintaining stand basal area and restoring degraded rainforests at the local scale will increase the probability of occupancy for members of the rainforest bird community. However, revegetation and retention of forest cover at the landscape scale may be necessary for the successful colonisation of many species. Chapter 3 introduced a predictive hypothesis-driven approach for quantifying the relative contribution of historic and contemporary processes to genetic connectivity. Current analytic frameworks in population genetics have difficulty evaluating meaningful hypotheses about spatial processes in dynamic landscapes. Confronting genetic data with models of historic and contemporary landscapes allowed the identification of dispersal processes operating in naturally heterogeneous and human-altered systems. Two measures of indirect gene flow were estimated from microsatellite polymorphism among 11 logrunner populations. Of particular interest was how much information in the genetic data was attributable to processes occurring in a reconstructed historic landscape and a contemporary human-modified landscape. A linear mixed model was used to estimate appropriate sampling variance from non-independent data and information-theoretic model selection provided strength of evidence for alternate hypotheses. The historic and contemporary landscapes explained an equal proportion of variation in genetic differentiation and there was considerable evidence for a temporal shift in dispersal pattern. Migration rates estimated from genealogical information were primarily influenced by contemporary landscape change. Landscape heterogeneity appeared to facilitate gene flow prior to European settlement, but contemporary deforestation is rapidly becoming the most important barrier to logrunner dispersal. Understanding asymmetric dispersal is becoming an important consideration for the conservation metapopulations. Populations acting as net exporters of dispersing animals may be able to rescue local populations from extinction and allow metapopulations to persist in degraded landscapes impacted by habitat loss. In Chapter 4, I estimated bidirectional migration rates from genetic data to infer dispersal among 11 logrunner populations. The first question posed was, does logrunner dispersal correspond to the source-sink or balanced model of dispersal? The second question involved determining the strength of evidence for two hypotheses about how landscape structure has affected asymmetric dispersal. Hypothesis one proposed that asymmetric dispersal was primarily influenced by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Hypothesis two asserted that asymmetric dispersal was predominantly influenced by anthropogenic landscape change. The data were confronted with the alternate hypotheses using linear mixed models and landscape covariates extracted from digital maps. The results showed the direction of asymmetric dispersal was consistent with source-sink population structure. I also discovered that the asymmetry in dispersal was influenced more by anthropogenic landscape change than by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Intact landscapes were net exporters of dispersing logrunners while landscapes heavily impacted by rainforest clearing were net importers of individuals. Elevated immigration rates into landscapes impacted by rainforest clearing appeared to arrest population declines in accordance with the rescue effect. The primary conclusion emerging from the study of patch occupancy and dispersal was that logrunner populations in South East Queensland conformed to a mainland-island metapopulation. Asymmetric dispersal from the largest expanse of upland rainforest appeared to prevent fragmented rainforests in close proximity from going locally extinct. While the distribution of logrunners was limited by the spatial configuration of rainforest patches, other rainforest birds exhibited variable responses to scale of habitat modification. The most consistent pattern was several species dropping-out of the community in degraded stands affected by selective timber harvest. Deforestation at the landscape scale also played a role in the extremely low patch occupancy rates of Albert’s lyrebirds (Menura alberti) and green catbirds (Ailuroedus crassirostris).

The local extinction of habitat patches and dispersal between the patches are important processes structuring animal populations in heterogeneous environments. Understanding these two processes is crucial for the conservation of wildlife populations in landscapes impacted by human land-use. Approximately 50% of the subtropical rainforest in South East Queensland, Australia has been lost to deforestation over the last 100 years. While large areas of rainforest are reserved, little is known about the distribution and population status of rainforest birds within smaller remnants in the region. The overall research problem for this thesis was to understand how deforestation and fragmentation of subtropical rainforest affects the occurrence of rainforest birds and the effective dispersal of a rainforest-restricted species, the logrunner (Orthonyx temminckii). Understanding why some bird species are lost from habitat patches while others remain will lead to improved conservation of extinction prone species in fragmented landscapes. Although the mechanisms underlying local extinctions are well established in temperate systems, the relative importance of local and regional processes on species occurrence in subtropical and tropical rainforests is poorly understood. Chapter 2 investigated the relative effects of life history and scale of habitat modification on avian site occupancy using observational data collected at 46 rainforest sites in South East Queensland. A probabilistic model for the joint site occupancy of 29 bird species was used to evaluate hypotheses for the effects of avian life history traits on the occurrence of multiple species. The single-species occurrence models incorporated habitat effects on detection, which may be especially important in rainforests because dense vegetation and idiosyncratic occurrence of species can interfere with sampling. Occupancy rates for each species were modelled to determine the relative influence of process operating at the stand, landscape and patch scales. The life history analysis indicated taxonomic Family, body mass, migratory strategy and feeding strata had large effects on avian site occupancy, whereas abundance traits such as mean density and extent of occurrence showed little predictive ability. After accounting for correlated extinction risk attributed to life history, the degradation of stand structure at the local scale was more important for species richness than habitat modification at landscape or patch scales. While individual species showed various responses to the different scales of habitat modification, the distribution of many species was limited by vegetation structure at the landscape scale. Maintaining stand basal area and restoring degraded rainforests at the local scale will increase the probability of occupancy for members of the rainforest bird community. However, revegetation and retention of forest cover at the landscape scale may be necessary for the successful colonisation of many species. Chapter 3 introduced a predictive hypothesis-driven approach for quantifying the relative contribution of historic and contemporary processes to genetic connectivity. Current analytic frameworks in population genetics have difficulty evaluating meaningful hypotheses about spatial processes in dynamic landscapes. Confronting genetic data with models of historic and contemporary landscapes allowed the identification of dispersal processes operating in naturally heterogeneous and human-altered systems. Two measures of indirect gene flow were estimated from microsatellite polymorphism among 11 logrunner populations. Of particular interest was how much information in the genetic data was attributable to processes occurring in a reconstructed historic landscape and a contemporary human-modified landscape. A linear mixed model was used to estimate appropriate sampling variance from non-independent data and information-theoretic model selection provided strength of evidence for alternate hypotheses. The historic and contemporary landscapes explained an equal proportion of variation in genetic differentiation and there was considerable evidence for a temporal shift in dispersal pattern. Migration rates estimated from genealogical information were primarily influenced by contemporary landscape change. Landscape heterogeneity appeared to facilitate gene flow prior to European settlement, but contemporary deforestation is rapidly becoming the most important barrier to logrunner dispersal. Understanding asymmetric dispersal is becoming an important consideration for the conservation metapopulations. Populations acting as net exporters of dispersing animals may be able to rescue local populations from extinction and allow metapopulations to persist in degraded landscapes impacted by habitat loss. In Chapter 4, I estimated bidirectional migration rates from genetic data to infer dispersal among 11 logrunner populations. The first question posed was, does logrunner dispersal correspond to the source-sink or balanced model of dispersal? The second question involved determining the strength of evidence for two hypotheses about how landscape structure has affected asymmetric dispersal. Hypothesis one proposed that asymmetric dispersal was primarily influenced by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Hypothesis two asserted that asymmetric dispersal was predominantly influenced by anthropogenic landscape change. The data were confronted with the alternate hypotheses using linear mixed models and landscape covariates extracted from digital maps. The results showed the direction of asymmetric dispersal was consistent with source-sink population structure. I also discovered that the asymmetry in dispersal was influenced more by anthropogenic landscape change than by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Intact landscapes were net exporters of dispersing logrunners while landscapes heavily impacted by rainforest clearing were net importers of individuals. Elevated immigration rates into landscapes impacted by rainforest clearing appeared to arrest population declines in accordance with the rescue effect. The primary conclusion emerging from the study of patch occupancy and dispersal was that logrunner populations in South East Queensland conformed to a mainland-island metapopulation. Asymmetric dispersal from the largest expanse of upland rainforest appeared to prevent fragmented rainforests in close proximity from going locally extinct. While the distribution of logrunners was limited by the spatial configuration of rainforest patches, other rainforest birds exhibited variable responses to scale of habitat modification. The most consistent pattern was several species dropping-out of the community in degraded stands affected by selective timber harvest. Deforestation at the landscape scale also played a role in the extremely low patch occupancy rates of Albert’s lyrebirds (Menura alberti) and green catbirds (Ailuroedus crassirostris).

The local extinction of habitat patches and dispersal between the patches are important processes structuring animal populations in heterogeneous environments. Understanding these two processes is crucial for the conservation of wildlife populations in landscapes impacted by human land-use. Approximately 50% of the subtropical rainforest in South East Queensland, Australia has been lost to deforestation over the last 100 years. While large areas of rainforest are reserved, little is known about the distribution and population status of rainforest birds within smaller remnants in the region. The overall research problem for this thesis was to understand how deforestation and fragmentation of subtropical rainforest affects the occurrence of rainforest birds and the effective dispersal of a rainforest-restricted species, the logrunner (Orthonyx temminckii). Understanding why some bird species are lost from habitat patches while others remain will lead to improved conservation of extinction prone species in fragmented landscapes. Although the mechanisms underlying local extinctions are well established in temperate systems, the relative importance of local and regional processes on species occurrence in subtropical and tropical rainforests is poorly understood. Chapter 2 investigated the relative effects of life history and scale of habitat modification on avian site occupancy using observational data collected at 46 rainforest sites in South East Queensland. A probabilistic model for the joint site occupancy of 29 bird species was used to evaluate hypotheses for the effects of avian life history traits on the occurrence of multiple species. The single-species occurrence models incorporated habitat effects on detection, which may be especially important in rainforests because dense vegetation and idiosyncratic occurrence of species can interfere with sampling. Occupancy rates for each species were modelled to determine the relative influence of process operating at the stand, landscape and patch scales. The life history analysis indicated taxonomic Family, body mass, migratory strategy and feeding strata had large effects on avian site occupancy, whereas abundance traits such as mean density and extent of occurrence showed little predictive ability. After accounting for correlated extinction risk attributed to life history, the degradation of stand structure at the local scale was more important for species richness than habitat modification at landscape or patch scales. While individual species showed various responses to the different scales of habitat modification, the distribution of many species was limited by vegetation structure at the landscape scale. Maintaining stand basal area and restoring degraded rainforests at the local scale will increase the probability of occupancy for members of the rainforest bird community. However, revegetation and retention of forest cover at the landscape scale may be necessary for the successful colonisation of many species. Chapter 3 introduced a predictive hypothesis-driven approach for quantifying the relative contribution of historic and contemporary processes to genetic connectivity. Current analytic frameworks in population genetics have difficulty evaluating meaningful hypotheses about spatial processes in dynamic landscapes. Confronting genetic data with models of historic and contemporary landscapes allowed the identification of dispersal processes operating in naturally heterogeneous and human-altered systems. Two measures of indirect gene flow were estimated from microsatellite polymorphism among 11 logrunner populations. Of particular interest was how much information in the genetic data was attributable to processes occurring in a reconstructed historic landscape and a contemporary human-modified landscape. A linear mixed model was used to estimate appropriate sampling variance from non-independent data and information-theoretic model selection provided strength of evidence for alternate hypotheses. The historic and contemporary landscapes explained an equal proportion of variation in genetic differentiation and there was considerable evidence for a temporal shift in dispersal pattern. Migration rates estimated from genealogical information were primarily influenced by contemporary landscape change. Landscape heterogeneity appeared to facilitate gene flow prior to European settlement, but contemporary deforestation is rapidly becoming the most important barrier to logrunner dispersal. Understanding asymmetric dispersal is becoming an important consideration for the conservation metapopulations. Populations acting as net exporters of dispersing animals may be able to rescue local populations from extinction and allow metapopulations to persist in degraded landscapes impacted by habitat loss. In Chapter 4, I estimated bidirectional migration rates from genetic data to infer dispersal among 11 logrunner populations. The first question posed was, does logrunner dispersal correspond to the source-sink or balanced model of dispersal? The second question involved determining the strength of evidence for two hypotheses about how landscape structure has affected asymmetric dispersal. Hypothesis one proposed that asymmetric dispersal was primarily influenced by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Hypothesis two asserted that asymmetric dispersal was predominantly influenced by anthropogenic landscape change. The data were confronted with the alternate hypotheses using linear mixed models and landscape covariates extracted from digital maps. The results showed the direction of asymmetric dispersal was consistent with source-sink population structure. I also discovered that the asymmetry in dispersal was influenced more by anthropogenic landscape change than by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Intact landscapes were net exporters of dispersing logrunners while landscapes heavily impacted by rainforest clearing were net importers of individuals. Elevated immigration rates into landscapes impacted by rainforest clearing appeared to arrest population declines in accordance with the rescue effect. The primary conclusion emerging from the study of patch occupancy and dispersal was that logrunner populations in South East Queensland conformed to a mainland-island metapopulation. Asymmetric dispersal from the largest expanse of upland rainforest appeared to prevent fragmented rainforests in close proximity from going locally extinct. While the distribution of logrunners was limited by the spatial configuration of rainforest patches, other rainforest birds exhibited variable responses to scale of habitat modification. The most consistent pattern was several species dropping-out of the community in degraded stands affected by selective timber harvest. Deforestation at the landscape scale also played a role in the extremely low patch occupancy rates of Albert’s lyrebirds (Menura alberti) and green catbirds (Ailuroedus crassirostris).

The local extinction of habitat patches and dispersal between the patches are important processes structuring animal populations in heterogeneous environments. Understanding these two processes is crucial for the conservation of wildlife populations in landscapes impacted by human land-use. Approximately 50% of the subtropical rainforest in South East Queensland, Australia has been lost to deforestation over the last 100 years. While large areas of rainforest are reserved, little is known about the distribution and population status of rainforest birds within smaller remnants in the region. The overall research problem for this thesis was to understand how deforestation and fragmentation of subtropical rainforest affects the occurrence of rainforest birds and the effective dispersal of a rainforest-restricted species, the logrunner (Orthonyx temminckii). Understanding why some bird species are lost from habitat patches while others remain will lead to improved conservation of extinction prone species in fragmented landscapes. Although the mechanisms underlying local extinctions are well established in temperate systems, the relative importance of local and regional processes on species occurrence in subtropical and tropical rainforests is poorly understood. Chapter 2 investigated the relative effects of life history and scale of habitat modification on avian site occupancy using observational data collected at 46 rainforest sites in South East Queensland. A probabilistic model for the joint site occupancy of 29 bird species was used to evaluate hypotheses for the effects of avian life history traits on the occurrence of multiple species. The single-species occurrence models incorporated habitat effects on detection, which may be especially important in rainforests because dense vegetation and idiosyncratic occurrence of species can interfere with sampling. Occupancy rates for each species were modelled to determine the relative influence of process operating at the stand, landscape and patch scales. The life history analysis indicated taxonomic Family, body mass, migratory strategy and feeding strata had large effects on avian site occupancy, whereas abundance traits such as mean density and extent of occurrence showed little predictive ability. After accounting for correlated extinction risk attributed to life history, the degradation of stand structure at the local scale was more important for species richness than habitat modification at landscape or patch scales. While individual species showed various responses to the different scales of habitat modification, the distribution of many species was limited by vegetation structure at the landscape scale. Maintaining stand basal area and restoring degraded rainforests at the local scale will increase the probability of occupancy for members of the rainforest bird community. However, revegetation and retention of forest cover at the landscape scale may be necessary for the successful colonisation of many species. Chapter 3 introduced a predictive hypothesis-driven approach for quantifying the relative contribution of historic and contemporary processes to genetic connectivity. Current analytic frameworks in population genetics have difficulty evaluating meaningful hypotheses about spatial processes in dynamic landscapes. Confronting genetic data with models of historic and contemporary landscapes allowed the identification of dispersal processes operating in naturally heterogeneous and human-altered systems. Two measures of indirect gene flow were estimated from microsatellite polymorphism among 11 logrunner populations. Of particular interest was how much information in the genetic data was attributable to processes occurring in a reconstructed historic landscape and a contemporary human-modified landscape. A linear mixed model was used to estimate appropriate sampling variance from non-independent data and information-theoretic model selection provided strength of evidence for alternate hypotheses. The historic and contemporary landscapes explained an equal proportion of variation in genetic differentiation and there was considerable evidence for a temporal shift in dispersal pattern. Migration rates estimated from genealogical information were primarily influenced by contemporary landscape change. Landscape heterogeneity appeared to facilitate gene flow prior to European settlement, but contemporary deforestation is rapidly becoming the most important barrier to logrunner dispersal. Understanding asymmetric dispersal is becoming an important consideration for the conservation metapopulations. Populations acting as net exporters of dispersing animals may be able to rescue local populations from extinction and allow metapopulations to persist in degraded landscapes impacted by habitat loss. In Chapter 4, I estimated bidirectional migration rates from genetic data to infer dispersal among 11 logrunner populations. The first question posed was, does logrunner dispersal correspond to the source-sink or balanced model of dispersal? The second question involved determining the strength of evidence for two hypotheses about how landscape structure has affected asymmetric dispersal. Hypothesis one proposed that asymmetric dispersal was primarily influenced by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Hypothesis two asserted that asymmetric dispersal was predominantly influenced by anthropogenic landscape change. The data were confronted with the alternate hypotheses using linear mixed models and landscape covariates extracted from digital maps. The results showed the direction of asymmetric dispersal was consistent with source-sink population structure. I also discovered that the asymmetry in dispersal was influenced more by anthropogenic landscape change than by naturally occurring habitat heterogeneity. Intact landscapes were net exporters of dispersing logrunners while landscapes heavily impacted by rainforest clearing were net importers of individuals. Elevated immigration rates into landscapes impacted by rainforest clearing appeared to arrest population declines in accordance with the rescue effect. The primary conclusion emerging from the study of patch occupancy and dispersal was that logrunner populations in South East Queensland conformed to a mainland-island metapopulation. Asymmetric dispersal from the largest expanse of upland rainforest appeared to prevent fragmented rainforests in close proximity from going locally extinct. While the distribution of logrunners was limited by the spatial configuration of rainforest patches, other rainforest birds exhibited variable responses to scale of habitat modification. The most consistent pattern was several species dropping-out of the community in degraded stands affected by selective timber harvest. Deforestation at the landscape scale also played a role in the extremely low patch occupancy rates of Albert’s lyrebirds (Menura alberti) and green catbirds (Ailuroedus crassirostris).

I investigated the effects ofhabitat loss and subsequent restoration on invertebrate community structure and ecosystem functioning in a mined peat bog in the North Island, New Zealand. In an experimental trial, the impact of peat bog habitat loss and isolation on the invertebrate community associated with Sporadanthus ferrugineus (Restionaceae) was investigated. Potted S. ferrugineus plants were exposed to invertebrates at various distances up to 800 m from an intact habitat (the presumed source population) over 18 weeks. Invertebrates rapidly colonised the experimental plants, with all major Orders and trophic groups present on Sc ferrugineus within 6 weeks. However. with increasing distance away from the undisturbed habitat, there was a significant decrease in total richness and abundance of invertebrates associated with the potted plants. Additional tests showed that even a moderate degree of isolation (i.e. greater than 400 m) from the intact habitat caused an almost complete failure of 'Batrachedra' sp. to colonise its host plant, at least in the short-term, The density of eggs and larvae, and the average larval size of 'Batrachedra' sp. (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae) colonising Si ferrugineus plants, as well as the proportion of Si ferrugineus stems damaged by 'Batrachedra' sp. herbivory, all decreased logarithmically with increasing distance from the intact habitat. Surprisingly, though, the rate of recovery of the insect-plant interaction following experimental habitat restoration was remarkably rapid (i.e. between 3Y2 and 6 years). After just 6 years there was no significant difference in insect-plant interactions between the intact peat bog sites and any of the experimentally restored sites up to 800 m away. These results suggest that the degree of isolation from undisturbed habitat has a major impact on the rate and patterns of restoration recovery in the invertebrate community and that some insect-plant interactions can recover rapidly from habitat loss with restoration management. Restoration of mined peat bogs in northern New Zealand is initiated by establishing a native vegetation cover to minimize further peat degradation. The effects of various restoration techniques on litter decomposition, microbial community activity and beetle community composition were investigated within an experimental trial, These treatments included translocation ofpeat bog habitat (direct transfer of islands), milled peat islands with no seed and milled peat islands with seed, and were compared with an unrestored mined site and an undisturbed peat bog. In all the response variables measured, the undisturbed peat bog sites had significantly higher decomposition rates and microbial respiration rates, and significantly higher abundance and species richness of beetles than any of the restoration treatments. Inaddition, the technique used to restore mined peatlands had a significant effect on the beetle community composition and litter decomposition processes. Despite a rapid initial change in the beetle community following habitat translocation, the direct transfer islands were still the most similar in beetle species composition to the undisturbed peat bog. Microbial activity and decomposition rates were higher in the direct transfer and mined peat surface after 6 months. However, even after 12 months, decomposition rates in the restored habitats were still far from reaching the levels recorded in the undisturbed peat bog. The results suggest that beetle community structure and ecosystem processes such as decomposition and microbial activity rates may be able to recover faster with certain restoration techniques, such as direct transfer of intact habitat islands. Subsequently, I examined long-term beetle community reassembly on islands that had been restored by creating raised areas ofprocessed peat with the addition of Leptospermum scoparium seed. Monitoring of different-aged restored islands representing the full range of restoration ages (up to 6 years) available at the peat mine, indicated that as the peat islands became older and the vegetation structure became more complex, the abundance, species richness and composition of the beetle community became increasingly similar to the community in the undisturbed peat bog. Despite this, distinct differences between the intact peat bog and older restored peat islands still persisted, even after 6 years, particularly at an individual species level. However, it is predicted that within 12 years the restored peat islands will share 100% ofbeetle species in common with the undisturbed peat bog. Taken together, these results indicate that restoration is effective in initiating the recovery of beetle assemblages and ecosystem processes (such as litter decomposition and microbial community activity) in cut-over peat bogs. However, it is estimated to take at least 12 years before pre-mining communities and functions are attained, and ongoing monitoring to develop an understanding of the longer-term dynamics of such ecosystems and processes is clearly required.

Hipóteses e sistemas ecológicos podem ser descritos pelos mais variados tipos de modelos teóricos. Modelos teóricos por sua vez descrevem sistemas idealizados e podem ser construídos sob diferentes abordagens. A ecologia foi profundamente influenciada por modelos ou hipóteses verbais construídos em uma abordagem predominantemente indutiva. Apesar de inspiradoras, tais hipóteses podem apresentar previsões que são logicamente falhas, uma vez que sistemas ecológicos são altamente complexos cujas trajetórias são difíceis de se prever intuitivamente. Neste sentido modelos teóricos quantitativos podem ser usados como ferramentas para traduzir hipóteses e deduzir previsões que podem ser confrontadas com dados reais. Modelos matemáticos são a forma mais tradicional e aceita de abordagem quantitativa. Apesar das vantagens analíticas da aplicação de modelos matemáticos, eles apresentam limitações para tratar de sistemas mais complexos e em escalas mais basais. Além disso, eles podem se tornar rapidamente complicados não só em termos de tratamento matemático mas também de entendimento por parte de um público mais biológico e empírico. Essa dificuldade de entendimento pode estar impedindo que estudos empíricos sejam fortemente embasados em teoria. Neste sentido, modelos computacionais pode ser uma solução promissora. Modelos computacionais podem ser criados para descrever sistemas virtuais que além de ser mais fáceis de serem desenvolvidos e entendidos por biólogos, permitem a inclusão de vários processos, variáveis e interações. Neste trabalho desenvolvemos um modelo baseado em indivíduos (IBM) para descrever comunidades com estocasticidade demográfica, interações intra e inter-específicas e dispersão. Com essa composição de modelo é possível combinar de diferentes maneiras três dos quatro processos presentes em hipóteses e teorias em ecologia, a saber: deriva, seleção e dispersão. No primeiro capítulo descrevemos os detalhes do modelo e como foi sua concepção e implementação. Ainda no neste capítulo simulamos o modelo explorando um espaço de parâmetros arbitrário, i.e. sem especificar um grupo ou sistema de estudo e analisamos o comportamento do modelo em relação à proporção de espécies persistentes ao fim da simulação e comparamos com a previsão do modelo determinístico de competição sem dispersão. No segundo capítulo aplicamos o modelo em uma versão não espacializada para avaliar dentro das premissas do modelo a consistência lógica das previsões da Hipótese da perturbação intermediária (IDH). No terceiro capítulo simulamos o modelo explorando um espaço de parâmetros baseados em dados empíricos de aves e avaliamos quais características das espécies as tornavam mais ou menos suscetíveis à extinção em paisagens com destruição de habitat. Por fim, discutimos brevemente sobre como o modelo apresentado o modelo apresentado e explorado aqui pode ser usado para diferentes propósitos e responder diferentes perguntas dentro dos contextos teóricos de cada capítulo da tese. E concluímos com algumas considerações finais sobre quais foram as contribuições de se desenvolver um modelo computacional e aplicá-lo a diferentes contextos nesta tese para a formação da doutoranda. / Ecological systems and hypothesis can be described by many different kinds of theoretical models. Theoretical models, on the other hand, are idealized descriptions of real systems that can be constructed under different approaches. Ecology was deeply influenced by verbal models or hypothesis under a inductive approach. Although inspiring, such hypothesis can be logically flawed, since ecological systems are highly complex which trajectories are difficult to predict by intuition. Accordingly quantitative theoretical models can be used as tools to translate hypotheses and deduce predictions that can be confronted with empirical data. Mathematical models are most traditional and well-accepted quantitative approach. Despite of the analytical advantages of using mathematical models , they have limitations to address the complexity of biological systems in lower scales. Furthermore, they become rapidly complicated not only in terms of mathematical treatment but also in terms of comprehension by a biological and empirical audience. This difficulties might prevent that theoretical studies predictions play its role of ground empirical studies. In this sense, computer simulation models can be a promising solution. Computer simulation models are more flexible to include various processes, variables and interaction than mathematical models. Furthermore, they create virtual systems that are easier to be developed and understood by biologists. Here, we developed an individual based model (IBM) to describe communities with stochastic demography, intra and inter-specific interactions and dispersion. With this configuration we can build models combining of different manners three of the four processes present in hypotheses and theories in ecology: drift, selection and dispersal. In the first chapter we describe the model details of implementation and conceptions. We also simulated the model to explore a broad parameter space of competing systems, without specifying a group or system of study; we then analyze the model behavior regarding the proportion of persistent species in the end of the simulation and compared the results with the predictions of deterministic model with competition, without dispersion. In the second chapter we apply the model in a non spatialized version of it to assess the logical consistency of the predictions of the Intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). In the third chapter we used the model to describe fragmented landscapes. We explored a parameter parameters based on empirical data of birds and we evaluate which characteristics of the species made them more or less susceptible to extinction in landscapes with habitat destruction. Finally, we discussed briefly how the model can be used for different purposes and some of the future directions within the theoretical contexts of each chapter of the thesis. We conclude the thesis with a reflexion on how the development and exploration of computer model in this thesis contributed to the student ecological background.

Invasões biológicas representam atualmente a segunda maior ameaça à biodiversidade e dois fatores são considerados os mais importantes para o sucesso de invasões: pressão de propágulos e distúrbios. Um tipo de distúrbio antrópico que pode promover invasões, por mudar a quantidade de habitats alterados e a extensão de bordas entre eles e habitats nativos, é a perda de habitat. Apesar da reconhecida importância da pressão de propágulos e dos distúrbios, poucos estudos os investigaram simultaneamente e, os que o fizeram, apresentam limitações, como escalas espaciais pequenas e correlações entre os determinantes, dificultando a compreensão da importância relativa e interações entre eles. Cachorros são os carnívoros mais abundantes no mundo. Em áreas rurais, a maioria mantém comportamento de animal de vida de livre, interagindo com e afetando espécies nativas através de predação, transmissão de doenças e competição. Usando um banco de dados obtido através de armadilhas fotográficas e censo da população de cachorros em uma região de Mata Atlântica de 300,000 ha, avaliamos a importância relativa e interações entre pressão de propágulos e distúrbios para a invasão por cachorros. Selecionamos 12 paisagens de 2830 ha cada, variando de 10 a 50% de floresta nativa remanescente. Em cada uma, alocamos através de amostragem aleatória estratificada 8 pontos de amostragem em florestas nativas, onde uma armadilha fotográfica foi instalada por ∼42 dias consecutivos. Todos os domicílios em cada paisagem foram visitados para a contagem do número de cachorros. A pressão de propágulos foi quantificada como a densidade de cachorros criados e a média e mediana das distâncias entre os locais de criação e a floresta nativa mais próxima; e distúrbios, como a proporção da paisagem ocupada por floresta nativa e total (nativa e exótica) e a extensão de bordas entre florestas nativas e áreas abertas. Através da identificação de cachorros nas fotos e considerando cada paisagem como uma unidade amostral, nós comparamos por AICc modelos de abundância (N-mixture) para estimar a abundância de cachorros em florestas nativas, considerando a detecção imperfeita. O único modelo selecionado indica que a abundância de cachorros em florestas nativas é maior onde a densidade de cachorros é mais alta e a cobertura florestal total é menor (ωi=0.82). A densidade de cachorros criados foi mais importante que a distribuição espacial dos indivíduos, e a cobertura floresta total mais importante que a extensão de bordas, para a abundância de cachorros invasores. A abundância estimada de cachorros variou de 12 a 79 (30.9 ± 19.5), e a proporção de cachorros criados que invadem florestas de 6 a 21% (12 ± 6%), entre as paisagens. Nossos resultados indicam que a perda de habitat é tão importante quanto a pressão de propágulos para a invasão de florestas nativas por cachorros, mas seus efeitos são aditivos em vez de sinérgicos. Dado que cachorros frequentemente realizam movimentos longos em áreas abertas, nós levantamos a hipótese de que a capacidade de deslocamento é a causa do efeito desprezível da distribuição espacial dos indivíduos criados sobre a invasão, e que florestas representam barreiras a estes movimentos, tornando o efeito da cobertura florestal mais importante do que o efeito da extensão de bordas (mais relacionada a extensão de acesso a floresta). Além disso, o número e proporção de cachorros invasores são expressivos, colocando o cachorro na posição de carnívoro mais abundante em remanescentes florestais. Junto com os conhecidos impactos severos de cachorros sobre espécies nativas, estes números sugerem a urgência de planos de ação para controlar a invasão por cachorros. Além dos métodos tradicionais de controle populacional, o contexto da paisagem deve ser levado em conta nestes planos. Paisagens muito desmatadas devem ser priorizadas, e manter e restaurar florestas também devem ser valorizados pelos efeitos negativos sobre invasões biológicas. Por fim, dada a associação da invasão por cachorros com a perda de habitat e com a densidade de cachorros e da população humana, sugerimos que pelo menos parte dos efeitos negativos sobre mamíferos nativos usualmente atribuídos ao desmatamento e a caça podem ser causados pela invasão por cachorros / Biological invasions are currently the second main threat to biodiversity and two drivers are considered as the most important for invasions success: propagule pressure and disturbance. An anthropogenic disturbance that can promote invasions, by changing the amount of altered habitats and the extension of edges between altered and native habitats, is habitat loss. Despite the recognized importance of propagule pressure and disturbance, few studies have simultaneously investigated these factors, and those that did so present limitations, such as small spatial scales and correlations between drivers, impairing our understanding of the relative importance and interactions between these drivers. Dogs are the most abundant carnivores worldwide; in rural areas, most are free ranging, interacting and affecting native species through predation, disease transmission and competition. Using a camera trap dataset and censuses of dog populations obtained across a 300,000-ha Atlantic forest region, we evaluated the relative importance and interactions of propagule pressure and disturbance as drivers of dog invasion. We selected 12 2830-ha landscapes, ranging from 10 to 50% remaining native forest. Within each, we selected through a random-stratified sample 8 forest sites where a camera trap was set for ∼42 consecutive days. All households in each landscape were visited to count the number of dogs. Propagule pressure was quantified as the density of raised dogs, and mean and median distances between locations where dogs were raised and the nearest forest; and disturbance as the proportion of the landscape occupied by native forest and by total forest (native and exotic), and edge extension between native forest and open areas. By identifying individual dogs in the photos and considering each landscape as a sampling unit, we compared through AICc N-mixture models to estimate the abundance of dogs within forests, considering imperfect detection. The only selected model indicates that dog abundance in forests is higher where the density of raised dogs is higher and where total forest cover is lower (ωi=0.82). Density of raised dogs was more important than the spatial distribution of individuals, and total forest cover more important than edge extension, in determining the abundance of invading dogs. The estimated dog abundance varied from 12 to 79 (30.9 ± 19.5), and the proportion of raised dogs that invade forests from 6 to 21% (12 ± 6%), across landscapes. Our results indicate that habitat loss is as important as propagule pressure in driving the invasion of native forests by dogs, but their effects are additive rather than synergic. Given that dogs frequently make long movements in open areas, we hypothesize that dog vagility is the cause of the negligible effect of spatial distribution of raised individuals on invasion, and that forests represent barriers to these movements, making the effect of forest cover more important than the effect of edge extension (more related to the extension of access to forests). Moreover, the number and proportion of invading dogs are impressive, ranking dogs as the most abundant carnivore in forest remnants. Together with the known severe impacts of dogs on native species, these numbers suggest the urgency of action plans for controlling dog invasion. Beyond the traditional population control, landscape context should be taken into account within strategies to reduce impacts of dogs. Highly-deforested landscapes should be prioritized, and maintaining and restoring forests should be valued also by their negative effects on biological invasions. Finally, given the observed associations between dog invasion and both habitat loss and density of dogs and human populations, we suggest that at least part of the negative effects on native mammals currently attributed to deforestation and hunting can be caused by dog invasion

Submitted by Cláudia Bueno (claudiamoura18@gmail.com) on 2015-10-26T17:20:43Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Mirian Cristina de Almeida - 2014.pdf: 3747648 bytes, checksum: 13c1f1a05ac42038a4f30dce37f26119 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2015-10-27T14:40:21Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Mirian Cristina de Almeida - 2014.pdf: 3747648 bytes, checksum: 13c1f1a05ac42038a4f30dce37f26119 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-10-27T14:40:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Mirian Cristina de Almeida - 2014.pdf: 3747648 bytes, checksum: 13c1f1a05ac42038a4f30dce37f26119 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-05-30 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Loss and habitat fragmentation at the landscape scale, the land use and local integrity of habitats (e.g. riparian forests), associated with the social structure of rural lands are factors that can determine the loss of species. These could be greater where of landscapes is homogenized by the same type of land use, such as in agricultural areas. This has important consequences and could be determine that Conservation Biology practices are not based only on Protected Areas. These approaches applied to aquatic insects occurring in Cerrado of Goiás state show that endangered species of Odonata, distributed in the central and south region presented a historical habitat loss of 76%. Regional assessment according to the criteria of the IUCN, a total of 34.8% of species would be in some category of threat, these 71.5% were Critically Endangered, 22,8% Endangered and 4.9% would be vulnerable. Local environmental variables, spatial structure of habitat and matrix in buffers of 250 meters and habitat spatial structure and matrix in the landscapes of 25 by 25 kilometers explained the local richness of Odonata adults in streams. Richness decreases with increase in pasture in the 250 meters buffers and crop in the landscape and increases with the opening canopy. For Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) immature, richness increases with increasing riparian forest 250 meters buffers, with the opening of canopy and the average conductivity of the water. When we consider the habitat integrity (riparian) associated with the structure of rural property around protected areas, the integrity of riparian vegetation as measured by NDVI was lower in the Buffer Zone of sustainable protect areas associated with small farms. The area of the property dedicated to the cultivation and cattle size has direct impacts to lower NDVI values. / A perda e a fragmentação de habitats na escala da paisagem, o uso do solo e a integridade local de habitats (e.g. mata ciliar), associadas à estrutura social das propriedades rurais são fatores que podem determinar a perda de espécies. Esta perda poderia ser maior onde a matriz das paisagens é homogeneizada por um mesmo tipo de uso do solo, como nas áreas agrícolas. Isto tem consequências importantes e fazem com que as práticas da Biologia da Conservação não se baseiem apenas nas Áreas Protegidas. Estas abordagens aplicadas aos insetos aquáticos ocorrentes no Cerrado do estado de Goiás demonstram que as espécies ameaçadas de Odonata, distribuídas na região centro e sudoeste apresentaram uma perda histórica de 76% de habitat. Na avaliação regional de acordo com os critérios da IUCN, um total de 34,8% das espécies estariam ameaçadas, das quais 71,5% estariam Criticamente Ameaçadas, 22,8% estariam Ameaçadas e 4,9% Vulneráveis. As variáveis ambientais locais, a estrutura espacial de habitat e da matriz em área de influência de 250 metros e a estrutura espacial de habitat e matriz nas paisagens de 25 por 25 quilômetros explicaram a riqueza local de adultos de Odonata em córregos. A riqueza diminui com o aumento de pastagem na área de influência de 250 metros e lavoura na paisagem e aumenta com a abertura de dossel. Para os imaturos de Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera e Trichoptera (EPT), a riqueza aumenta com o aumento da quantidade de mata ciliar a 250 metros, com a abertura de dossel e a condutividade da água. Quando consideramos a integridade de habitat (mata ciliar) associada a estrutura da propriedade rural ao redor de áreas protegidas, a integridade da vegetação ripária medida pelo NDVI foi menor na Zona de Amortecimento da Unidade de Uso sustentável associada a pequenas propriedades. A área da propriedade dedicada ao cultivo e o tamanho do rebanho tem impactos diretos para valores menores de NDVI.