Memoria para optar al título Profesional de Bioquímico / El desarrollo embrionario en vertebrados es coordinado por una red de señales y factores de crecimiento que comandan diferentes procesos celulares. Sonic Hedgehog (SHH), es un ligando considerado como un regulador maestro que dirige los procesos de proliferación celular, migración, apoptosis, sobrevida y diferenciación celular. SHH es liberado al medio y una vez que llega a su célula blanco, ésta activa una compleja vía de señalización intracelular, que finalmente, moviliza a los factores transcripcionales Gli. Estos últimos activan la expresión de genes blanco de la vía reconociendo secuencias específicas en el ADN llamadas GBS (del inglés “Gli Binding Site”). Además, se sabe que una desregulación en la vía de SHH/Gli puede llevar al desarrollo de cáncer, como ocurre en los casos del meduloblastoma y el cáncer de células basales de la piel, entre otros. Recientemente, por resultados obtenidos en el laboratorio, se estableció que en los modelos de ratón y pez cebra, el gen neogenina 1 es un blanco transcripcional de la vía SHH/Gli. Considerando la conservación evolutiva de la vía de SHH/Gli y la característica multifuncional de la proteína Neogenina 1, un receptor de membrana que responde a diferentes ligandos, sumado a su reciente implicancia en cáncer, se planteó estudiar a Neogenina 1 como un nuevo blanco transcripcional directo de la vía SHH/Gli, en un modelo celular de neuroblastoma humano, una patología donde se sabe que la vía está activada. En ensayos de pérdida de función farmacológica de SHH realizados en cultivos celulares de neuroblastoma humano, se observó que la expresión de Neogenina 1 disminuía de manera dosis dependiente. A partir de este resultado, se realizó un análisis in silico que determinó la existencia de tres posibles GBS en la secuencia de Neogenina 1: GBS 1 ubicado a los 18,6 Kb río arrida desde el inicio de la traducción, GBS 2 y GBS 3, localizados dentro del primer intrón, a 39,1 y 54,4 Kb desde el inicio de la traducción, respectivamente. Luego, se estudió el reconocimiento y la unión de factores transcripcionales Gli a los posibles GBS mediante ensayo de inmunoprecipitación de cromatina (ChIP) en células de neuroblastoma. Sólo el sitio GBS 3 fue reconocido por Gli 2. Finalmente, para evaluar la funcionalidad de los GBS encontrados en Neogenina 1, éstos se clonaron río arriba del gen reportero luciferasa. Concordante con el resultado del ChIP, sólo el sitio GBS 3 activó la expresión de luciferasa en respuesta a la activación con Gli 2. Por lo tanto, este trabajo de tesis permite establecer a Neogenina 1 como un nuevo gen blanco transcripcional directo de la vía SHH/Gli en modelo celular de neuroblastoma humano. Con esto, se pretende aportar al entendimiento de los mecanismos celulares que hacen a SHH contribuir en procesos tan diversos durante el desarrollo embrionario y que probablemente subyacen al desarrollo de cáncer. / The patterning and growth of a multicellular embryo is orchestrated by a number of developmental signaling pathways, such as the Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathway. SHH is considered a master regulator controlling a variety of complex processes such as proliferation, cellular migration, apoptosis, differentiation and cellular survival. SHH is secreted by a group of specialized cells and once reaching its receptors in targets cells, activates a complex intracellular signaling pathway that finally mobilizes the Gli transcriptional factors. These factors move to the nucleus and recognize specific sequences in the DNA known as Gli Binding Sites (GBS), activating the transcription of their target genes. It is known that a deregulation of the SHH pathway drives the development of several cancers, like medulloblastoma and basal cell carcinoma. Recently our laboratory established neogenin 1 as a transcriptional target of the SHH/Gli pathway both in the mouse and zebra fish models. Considering the evolutionary conservation of de SHH/Gli pathway and the multifunctional properties of Neogenin 1, a transmembrane receptor that binds different ligands, and that has been implicated in cancer, we proposed to study human Neogenin 1 gene as a new and direct transcriptional target of the SHH/Gli pathway using a human cell line of neuroblastoma, a cancer where this pathway is constitutively active. In pharmacological SHH-loss of function assays made in neuroblastoma cell cultures, we observed that Neogenin 1 expression was decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Based on this result, we performed an in silico analysis that showed the presence of three putative GBS in the Neogenin 1 sequence: GBS 1, located 18.6 Kb upstream from the translation start, and GBS 2 and GBS 3, which were located within the first intron, 39.1 Kb and 54.4 Kb from the translation start, respectively. Next, we studied the Gli transcriptional factor recognition and binding to these putative GBS through chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) in neuroblastome cells. We found that only Gli 2 activator recognized only GBS 3. Finally, in order to evaluate the Neogenin 1 GBS functionality, we cloned them upstream of the luciferase reporter gene. Concordant with the ChIP result, only the GBS 3 induced luciferase expression upon Gli 2 stimulation. In summary, this thesis proposes Neogenin 1 as a new direct transcriptional factor of the SHH/Gli pathway in a human neuroblastoma cell model. Our results aim to contribute to the understanding of how the SHH pathway is involved in diverse processes during embryonic development, and also, to the cellular mechanisms that explain the role of SHH in cancer. / Fondecyt 1110237

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The ability to preserve, protect, or grow skeletal muscle would greatly benefit patients in health and disease. Understanding the molecular pathways that regulate muscle size is necessary to develop interventions. The extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) and Hedgehog signaling pathways each play necessary roles in skeletal muscle development. The ERK pathway has been shown to both stimulate and inhibit muscle development at different stages, while Hedgehog signaling is vital for embryonic muscle development. Thus, these pathways represent prime targets for manipulation in diseases associated with muscle loss. In prior studies, cancer patients treated with the ERK inhibitor, Selumetinib, experienced significant gains in lean body mass. To study the mechanisms responsible, we tested the potential of Selumetinib to protect against muscle wasting in muscle cell cultures and in mice with experimental lung cancer. Selumetinib was able to induce hypertrophy of cultured muscle cells. In mice, we observed a reduction in tumor mass and in circulating mediators of muscle wasting including inflammatory cytokines. However, Selumetinib treatment did not prevent cancer-induced muscle loss. Together, these data suggest a diversity in the underlying molecular mechanisms and the need for careful consideration when extrapolating results across different disease states, clinical trials, and model systems. In separate studies, we found that the Hedgehog pathway was increased in mice and patients with cancer-associated muscle wasting and inflammation. In a series of studies in muscle cell cultures, in genetically modified mice, and in mice bearing tumors, we found that inflammatory cytokines activated Hedgehog expression in muscle. Hedgehog signaling promoted the replication of muscle stem cells but reduced the expression of genes that specify mature muscle. Inhibiting Hedgehog signaling promoted muscle growth, while activating it caused muscle wasting. Furthermore, we identified unique properties of two proteins activated by Hedgehog, Gli1 and Gli2, where Gli1 appears to promote muscle stem cell proliferation and Gli2 mature muscle gene expression. These data implicate the Hedgehog pathway, GLI1 and GLI2 as targets for treatment of muscle wasting diseases. / 2 years

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Le cancer de la prostate (CaP) est le cancer le plus fréquent chez l'homme et représente la deuxième cause de mortalité par cancer. Cette pathologie est sensible aux androgènes des stades localisés aux stades métastatiques. Après le traitement des formes avancés de ce cIl est admit aujourd'hui que les androgènes seuls ne sont pas suffisants pour déclencher le cancer de la prostate. En effet, le rôle des œstrogènes dans la carcinogenèse prostatique est suggéré par plusieurs études. L'activation de la voie de signalisation Hedgehog (Hh) joue un rôle important dans le développement de plusieurs cancers, y compris le CaP. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes qui régulent l'activation de cette voie dans le CaP est nécessaire afin de définir de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques plus efficaces.Dans ce travail, nous mettons en évidence l'interaction entre la voie Hh et les hormones stéroïdiennes dans les cellules prostatiques. Nous avons observé : i) une activation de la voie Hh par l'œstrogène (sulfate d'œstrone (SE1)), atténuée par l'anti-œstrogène (ICI) et par l'inhibiteur de la voie Hh (KAAD-cyclopamine), ii) une régulation négative de la voie Hh par l'androgène (dihydrotestostérone (DHT)) et l'œstrogène (17β-œstradiol (E2)). Nous avons démontré que l'inhibition de la voie Hh induite par DHT et E2 est dépendante des récepteurs des androgènes (RA). Cependant, l'effet de SE1 sur la voie Hh pourrait être dépendante des récepteurs des œstrogènes (ER). Enfin, nous avons observé une inhibition de l'activité des RA par KAAD-cyclopamine. Les dérivés de cyclopamine pourraient donc représenter une nouvelle classe d'agents thérapeutiques ciblant le RA dans le cancer de la prostate. Une meilleure caractérisation des cibles potentielles de ces molécules semble être intéressante. / Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most frequent male malignancy and the second most common cause of cancer-related death in men. This cancer is androgen sensitive in its development and progression to metastatic disease. Despite this, increasing evidence suggest that androgens alone are not able to induce PCa and estrogen signaling has a key role in prostate cancer progression. Hedgehog (Hh) pathway activation is important in the growth and development of various carcinomas including PCa. A better understanding of Hh pathway regulating mechanisms in PCa is important in order to identify new therapeutic strategies for this pathology. In this study we investigate the interaction between Hh pathway and steroid hormones in prostate cells. We showed: i) Hh pathway activation by the estrogen (estrone sulfate E1S), attenuated by the anti-estrogen (ICI) and by the Hh pathway inhibitor (KAAD-cyclopamine) ii) Hh pathway negative regulation by the androgen (dihydrotestostérone (DHT)) and the estrogen (17β-estradiol (E2)). Moreover, we showed that Hh pathway inhibition is androgen receptor (AR) dependent. However, E1S effect on this pathway might be estrogen receptor (ER) dependent. Finally, our results suggest that targeting AR signaling by cyclopamine derivatives could be promising therapeutic alternative in prostate cancer, which needs a further investigation.

O meduloblastoma (MB) é o tumor maligno cerebral mais frequente em crianças e adolescentes. Trata-se de uma doença heterogênea sob o aspecto genético, sendo reconhecido ao menos 12 subgrupos genético-moleculares, com impacto na apresentação clínicopatológica. Pacientes do subgrupo SHH apresentam mutação somática em genes da via Hedgehog, incluindo PTCH1, SUFU, SMO e ativação dos genes GLI1 e GLI2. Mutações no gene TP53 também podem estar presentes, particularmente em crianças acima de 3 anos, e conferem um pior prognóstico. O trióxido de arsênio (ATO) possui ação inibitória sobre os genes da via SHH, mas pouco se sabe sobre sua ação no MB. O presente estudo objetivou avaliar os potenciais efeitos citotóxicos e radiossensibilizantes do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico grupo SHH (ONS-76: TP53-selvagem; DAOY: TP53-mutado c.725G>T e UW402, TP53-mutado c.464C>A). Foram comparadas as taxas de proliferação celular, clonogenicidade e apoptose nas linhagem de MB antes e após o tratamento com ATO. Também foi avaliada a clonogenicidade da associação droga e irradiação. Foram investigadas proteínas responsáveis pelo reparo dos danos causados ao DNA (Rad51 e Ku86) através de Western Blot. Foi realizada análise da expressão gênica relativa por QPCR e estudados genes que integram a via SHH, assim como efetores finais desta via de sinalização. A viabilidade celular foi monitorada nos tempos de 24 à 120 horas pelo ensaio de resazurina. A taxa de apoptose foi mensurada por meio de marcação com anexina e iodeto de propídio e avaliada por citometria de fluxo. Os ensaios foram realizados em triplicata e analisados por One Way e Two Way ANOVA, utilizando o pós-teste Bonferroni, e sendo considerados resultados significativos valores de p<0,05. Foi possível observar uma diminuição na viabilidade celular após tratamento com ATO nas três linhagens estudadas. Além disso, houve uma diminuição significativa na capacidade clonogênica. Observou-se também um aumento nas taxas de apoptose nas linhagens, sendo acima de 70% de morte celular para a linhagem DAOY. Foi observado que o tratamento com ATO radiossensibilizou a linhagem UW402, TP53-mutado. Não foi encontrada associação com proteínas de reparo no tempo e dose estudados. O estudo de expressões relativas dos genes estudados demonstrou inibição, principalmente nas linhagens de interesse DAOY e UW402 -(SHH TP53) mutado. Estes achados in vitro apontam para um efeito citotóxico do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico, podendo apresentar efeito radiossenssibilizante. O ATO deve ser melhor explorado como droga alvo para MB SHH+, em caráter experimental. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant brain tumor in children and adolescents. It is a heterogeneous disease under the genetic aspect, with at least 12 geneticmolecular subgroups being recognized, with impact on the clinical-pathological presentation. Patients of the SHH subgroup present somatic mutation in genes of the Hedgehog pathway, including PTCH1, SUFU, SMO and activation of the genes GLI1 and GLI2. Mutations in the TP53 gene may also be present, particularly in children over 3 years, and confer a worse prognosis. The arsenic trioxide (ATO) has an inhibitory action on SHH pathway genes, but little is known about its action. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential cytotoxic and radiosensitizing effects of ATO on the pediatric MB cells of SHH group (ONS-76: TP53- wild type; DAOY: TP53-mutated c.725GT and UW402 TP53-mutated c.464C>A). Cell proliferation, clonogenicity and apoptosis were compared in the MB strains following ATO treatment. The clonogenicity assay of ATO combined with irradiation was also evaluated. We investigated proteins responsible for repairing DNA damage and performed Western blotting of the Rad51 and Ku86 proteins. Gene expression analysis was performed using the real-time PCR. Selected genes integrating the SHH pathway as well as final effectors of signaling were also assesed. Cell viability was monitored at endpoints from 24 to 120h by the resazurin assay. The rate of apoptosis was measured by labeling with annexin and propidium iodide, as assessed by flow cytometry. The assays were performed in triplicate and analyzed by One Way and Two Way ANOVA, using the Bonferroni post-test, and being considered significant results a p value less than 0.05. It was possible to observe a decrease in cell viability in the three studied strains. In addition, there was a significant decrease in clonogenic capacity. There was also an increase in the apoptosis rates in the lineages, being above 70% of cell death for the DAOY lineage. It was found that the ATO treatment radiosensitized the UW402 strain - TP53-mutated. No association with time and dose of ATO and irradiation on the repair proteins was found. The study of the relative expressions of the studied genes demonstrated inhibition, mainly in the mutant line of interest DAOY and UW-402, a SHHTP53 mutated cell-line. These in vitro findings point to a cytotoxic effect of ATO on pediatric medulloblastoma lines, with a potential radiosensitizing effect. This study offers rationale for further assesment of ATO on SHH-MB, either alone or along with radiotherapy as a preclinical drug.

O meduloblastoma (MB) é o tumor maligno cerebral mais frequente em crianças e adolescentes. Trata-se de uma doença heterogênea sob o aspecto genético, sendo reconhecido ao menos 12 subgrupos genético-moleculares, com impacto na apresentação clínicopatológica. Pacientes do subgrupo SHH apresentam mutação somática em genes da via Hedgehog, incluindo PTCH1, SUFU, SMO e ativação dos genes GLI1 e GLI2. Mutações no gene TP53 também podem estar presentes, particularmente em crianças acima de 3 anos, e conferem um pior prognóstico. O trióxido de arsênio (ATO) possui ação inibitória sobre os genes da via SHH, mas pouco se sabe sobre sua ação no MB. O presente estudo objetivou avaliar os potenciais efeitos citotóxicos e radiossensibilizantes do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico grupo SHH (ONS-76: TP53-selvagem; DAOY: TP53-mutado c.725G>T e UW402, TP53-mutado c.464C>A). Foram comparadas as taxas de proliferação celular, clonogenicidade e apoptose nas linhagem de MB antes e após o tratamento com ATO. Também foi avaliada a clonogenicidade da associação droga e irradiação. Foram investigadas proteínas responsáveis pelo reparo dos danos causados ao DNA (Rad51 e Ku86) através de Western Blot. Foi realizada análise da expressão gênica relativa por QPCR e estudados genes que integram a via SHH, assim como efetores finais desta via de sinalização. A viabilidade celular foi monitorada nos tempos de 24 à 120 horas pelo ensaio de resazurina. A taxa de apoptose foi mensurada por meio de marcação com anexina e iodeto de propídio e avaliada por citometria de fluxo. Os ensaios foram realizados em triplicata e analisados por One Way e Two Way ANOVA, utilizando o pós-teste Bonferroni, e sendo considerados resultados significativos valores de p<0,05. Foi possível observar uma diminuição na viabilidade celular após tratamento com ATO nas três linhagens estudadas. Além disso, houve uma diminuição significativa na capacidade clonogênica. Observou-se também um aumento nas taxas de apoptose nas linhagens, sendo acima de 70% de morte celular para a linhagem DAOY. Foi observado que o tratamento com ATO radiossensibilizou a linhagem UW402, TP53-mutado. Não foi encontrada associação com proteínas de reparo no tempo e dose estudados. O estudo de expressões relativas dos genes estudados demonstrou inibição, principalmente nas linhagens de interesse DAOY e UW402 -(SHH TP53) mutado. Estes achados in vitro apontam para um efeito citotóxico do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico, podendo apresentar efeito radiossenssibilizante. O ATO deve ser melhor explorado como droga alvo para MB SHH+, em caráter experimental. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant brain tumor in children and adolescents. It is a heterogeneous disease under the genetic aspect, with at least 12 geneticmolecular subgroups being recognized, with impact on the clinical-pathological presentation. Patients of the SHH subgroup present somatic mutation in genes of the Hedgehog pathway, including PTCH1, SUFU, SMO and activation of the genes GLI1 and GLI2. Mutations in the TP53 gene may also be present, particularly in children over 3 years, and confer a worse prognosis. The arsenic trioxide (ATO) has an inhibitory action on SHH pathway genes, but little is known about its action. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential cytotoxic and radiosensitizing effects of ATO on the pediatric MB cells of SHH group (ONS-76: TP53- wild type; DAOY: TP53-mutated c.725GT and UW402 TP53-mutated c.464C>A). Cell proliferation, clonogenicity and apoptosis were compared in the MB strains following ATO treatment. The clonogenicity assay of ATO combined with irradiation was also evaluated. We investigated proteins responsible for repairing DNA damage and performed Western blotting of the Rad51 and Ku86 proteins. Gene expression analysis was performed using the real-time PCR. Selected genes integrating the SHH pathway as well as final effectors of signaling were also assesed. Cell viability was monitored at endpoints from 24 to 120h by the resazurin assay. The rate of apoptosis was measured by labeling with annexin and propidium iodide, as assessed by flow cytometry. The assays were performed in triplicate and analyzed by One Way and Two Way ANOVA, using the Bonferroni post-test, and being considered significant results a p value less than 0.05. It was possible to observe a decrease in cell viability in the three studied strains. In addition, there was a significant decrease in clonogenic capacity. There was also an increase in the apoptosis rates in the lineages, being above 70% of cell death for the DAOY lineage. It was found that the ATO treatment radiosensitized the UW402 strain - TP53-mutated. No association with time and dose of ATO and irradiation on the repair proteins was found. The study of the relative expressions of the studied genes demonstrated inhibition, mainly in the mutant line of interest DAOY and UW-402, a SHHTP53 mutated cell-line. These in vitro findings point to a cytotoxic effect of ATO on pediatric medulloblastoma lines, with a potential radiosensitizing effect. This study offers rationale for further assesment of ATO on SHH-MB, either alone or along with radiotherapy as a preclinical drug.

La voie de signalisation activée par la protéine Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) est connue pour son rôle majeur au cours de l’embryogenèse et en particulier dans la prolifération et la spécification cellulaire ou encore le guidage axonal au cours de l’établissement des structures du système nerveux. Depuis quelques années, ce morphogène a aussi été identifié comme un régulateur important de plusieurs processus physiologiques du cerveau adulte comme le maintien de la neurogenèse ou la régulation de l’activité électrique de certains neurones (Traiffort et al., 2010). La suractivation de la voie Shh dans un cerveau sain entraine une augmentation significative de la prolifération des cellules progénitrices des oligodendrocytes (OPCs), la source des oligodendrocytes matures, les cellules responsables de la formation des gaines de myéline (Loulier et al., 2006). Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai étudié le potentiel que représente l’activation de la voie Shh dans la régulation de ces progéniteurs dans un contexte de démyélinisation. Pour cela, j’ai utilisé une souris transgénique plp-GFP, chez laquelle la protéine fluorescente verte est exprimée par les cellules du lignage oligodendrocytaire. Après avoir caractérisé le profil d’expression de la GFP dans le cerveau mature de ces souris, j’ai mis au point un modèle de démyélinisation focale par injection stéréotaxique d’un détergent spécifique de la myéline, la lysolécithine (LPC). J’ai identifié les cellules du lignage oligodendrocytaire comme source directe de protéines Shh au sein de la lésion à un temps très précoce après l’injection de LPC. Les gènes cibles de la voie Shh sont aussi fortement induits dans cette population cellulaire à une période plus tardive, correspondant à la différenciation des OPCs en cellules matures. L’utilisation d’adénovirus codant soit pour Shh lui-même soit pour son antagoniste physiologique Hip, m’a permis de réaliser des expériences de gain et de perte de fonction et ainsi d’analyser comment la modulation de la voie Shh peut influencer sur le processus de régénération des oligodendrocytes suite à une lésion. La surexpression de Shh permet d’augmenter la prolifération des OPCs mais aussi d’accélérer leur différenciation, aboutissant à un nombre plus élevé d’oligodendrocytes matures plus précocement au cours du processus de remyélinisation. De plus, il est intéressant de constater que la densité des cellules astrocytaires et microgliales, notamment associées au processus inflammatoire, diminue dans la lésion chez les animaux ayant reçu l’adénovirus Shh comparés au animaux contrôles. A l’inverse, le blocage de la voie induit l’arrêt complet de la production de nouveaux oligodendrocytes. Au-delà de l’amélioration de notre compréhension de la physiologie et de la régulation du lignage oligodendrocytaire dans le cerveau adulte, l’ensemble de ce travail montre de quelle manière la voie Shh peut représenter une nouvelle piste dans la recherche de cibles thérapeutiques dans les affections de la myéline telles que la sclérose en plaques. / The Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling pathway is known for its role during embryogenesis and in particular for controlling cell proliferation and specification, as well as axon guidance. In recent years, this morphogen has also been identified as an important regulator of several physiological processes in the adult brain such as the maintenance of neurogenesis or the regulation of the electrophysiological propreties of mature neurons (Traiffort et al., 2010). Overactivation of the Shh pathway in a healthy brain causes a significant increase in the proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), the source of mature oligodendrocytes, the cells responsible for the formation of myelin sheaths (Loulier et al., 2006).In my thesis, I studied the effects of the Shh pathway activation on OPC regulation in the context of demyelination. To that purpose, I used a plp-GFP transgenic mouse, in which the green fluorescent protein (GFP) is expressed by cells belonging to the oligodendrocyte lineage. After characterization of the expression pattern of GFP in the mature brain of these mice, I developed a model of focal demyelination by stereotaxic injection of lysolecithin (LPC). I identified the oligodendrocyte lineage cells as a source of Shh protein within the lesion, soon after the LPC injection. Target genes of the Shh pathway are also strongly induced in this cell population, at a time corresponding to the differentiation of OPCs into mature cells. The use of adenoviral vectors encoding either Shh itself or its physiological antagonist Hip allowed me to conduct gain- and loss-of-function experiments. This way I could analyze how the modulation of Shh pathway may influence the regeneration ofoligodendrocytes after injury. Shh overexpression increases the survival and proliferation of OPCs but also accelerates their differentiation, resulting in a higher number of mature oligodendrocytes earlier during the remyelination process. In addition, the density of astrocytes and microglia, associated with the inflammatory process, is decreased in animalsreceiving the Shh adenoviral vector compared to control animals. Altogether these effects are associated with a reduction of the lesion. Conversely, blocking the pathway induced a complete arrest of new oligodendrocyte production. Besides the fundamental knowledge gained about the molecular mechanism involved in the oligodendroglial precursor cells survival, proliferation, differentiation and myelin repair in vivo, this project should also give valuable insights concerning the potential use of pharmacological modulators of Shh signaling as a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other myelin diseases.