China's economic reform initiated in 1979 has brought about the partial functioning of markets and the growing interest in Western marketing on the part of academics, practitioners, and governmental bodies. In the West, despite the repeated espousal since the 1950s, marketing orientation has only been partially practised by UK and American firms, with a resultant decline in international competitiveness. Meanwhile, a number of related fundamental issues remain unexplored. This study addresses the compatibility of Western marketing with China's new setting, with a focus on the general factors encouraging and discouraging marketing orientation and the consequences thereof. A postal survey involved 254 UK firms and 636 Chinese enterprises, supplemented by two in-depth interviews. Principal component, regression, and discriminant analyses, together with t-test and analysis of variance, were performed for data analysis. The major issues in the study include: 1) characteristics of the firm adopting marketing orientation; 2) associations of marketing orientation with market structure and (governmental and corporate) control; 3) relationships between marketing orientation and performance; and 4) linkages between innovation and marketing orientation. Within this framework, the following are further examined: a) relationships among market structure, control, marketing orientation, and firm size; b) differences between the UK and China business environment and between (UK) corporate investment control and (Chinese) governmental investment control; c) structure of business orientation in UK and Chinese enterprises; and d) issues particularly relating to the Chinese context such as business behaviour and environment in different regions and enterprises of different type. The research demonstrates the nature of the embryonic stage of markets and marketing-related behaviour in China, and provides insights into business orientation in Western surroundings. A number of problems in the business orientation of UK firms and key parameters in terms of business decision and further research have been identified.

The strategic information systems (IS) literature often suggests that there is a need to align IS strategy with business strategy. However, three major limitations in the study of IS strategic alignment have not been adequately addressed. First, IS strategic alignment is usually not well-defined. Second, there are few research studies on appropriate measures of IS strategic alignment. Third, the significance and benefits of IS strategic alignment are difficult to determine. This thesis develops a configurational model on IS strategic alignment that evaluates not only the internal consistencies between IS strategy and business strategy but also contingency approaches to different types of IS strategic alignment. The four alignment types are Business-strategy-led, Conservative, Organisation-led and Technology-led. Quantitative assessments on survey data indicate that there is a relationship between alignment types and IS planning factors, as well as significant differences in IS strategic planning characteristics among the four alignment types. More effective and less effective indicators for both IS strategic planning and IS success have been identified. Qualitative analyses from the survey and multiple case study evaluations have identified good practices and pitfalls to avoid in IS strategic planning, as well as the change processes in the migration of one alignment type to another. The enhancement of the IS strategic alignment configurational model incorporates the "middle-fit" alignment type so that the configurational characteristics could be more distinctive, and the extension of the alignment theory to a capabilitybased resource alignment model by matching users' information management experience against the IT department's capability to develop and deliver high quality IS. Further research initiatives have been also been identified.

The aim of this study is to examine the differences and similarities in the approach to marketing of British and German companies in the machine tool industry. While the German machine tool industry is one of the most successful in the world the British industry is in decline and so, in addition, this research seeks to establish the factors that influence the success of German manufacturers and what lessons can be learnt from their success. Interviews were conducted with 40 managers in British and German companies. However, . difficulties experienced in obtaining data from German managers necessitated the inclusion of British-based subsidiaries of German machine tool manufacturers. This approach resulted in three distinct samples, small in size and with a bias towards larger, more successful German companies. In spite of the methodological weaknesses, the study provides a valuable insight into Anglo-German differences in a number of key areas. The British manufacturers are found to adopt a short-term approach to their markets emphasising goals such as shortterm profitability and survival. Their German competitors, meanwhile, pursue longer-term goals based on market share. Both the British and German manufacturers claim to pursue strategies based on product quality and reliability. German manufacturers, however, appear to be better at defining their target markets. In addition they are found to attach greater importance to the need for an advanced as well as flexible and responsive R & D capability. A commitment to new product development is evident in the 70% of German manufacturers that are selling products developed in the last ten years. This is matched by a premium pricing policy. British companies, however, are found to have less clearly define target markets, and although they appear to be investing more in R & D than their German counterparts a large proportion of them are selling products developed over twenty years ago. In organisational terms the overriding theme in the British companies interviewed is informality both in management style and planning and control systems. Whilst the German managers seem to prefer a more balanced approach to communications there is greater commitment to formal planning and control systems. Over 75% of German companies, compared with less than 20% of the British companies, are rated as being successful such that successful organisations are found to display many of the same characteristics as German manufacturers. These companies appear to display a strong product orientation, although a high degree of customer orientation is also found in many of the same companies. Finally, the British subsidiaries of German manufacturers do not appear to resemble their German parents very closely and so the parent subsidiary relationship is questioned.

This thesis presents the product of the research into the comparative marketing strategies of competing American, British and Japanese companies in the UK market. These companies were drawn from the audio/hi-fl, ball bearing, machine tools, microwave ovens and photocopier industries. A. The aims of the research were: i) to investigate and compare a matched sample of subsidiaries of the three national parent companies to discover whether there were significant differences in the way that these subsidiaries went about their business of marketing; ii) to identify which marketing applications, supported by behavioural and organisational differences, contributed to the achievement of effective marketing strategies; iii) to examine headquarters-subsidiary relationships regarding the extent of overseas headquarter's support for its UK subsidiary's marketing operations; and iv) to discover whether there were any pointers to change which would be beneficial in the marketing organisation or operations of UK firms seeking to improve their marketing strategies and performances in these industries. Suitable hypotheses indicated by possible gaps in the literature review were prepared for investigation and testing in order to achieve these aims. The literature review discussed in this thesis also highlighted the difficulties faced by UK firms and the challenges posed by overseas companies in the changed international business conditions from the 1980s to 1991.

This thesis is concerned with the emerging role of information systems in the strategies of business in developing countries and the potential for improved business use to significantly increase national levels of utilisation of IT. A report by the United Nations in 1971 called for major efforts to increase the level of utilisation of IT in developing countries in order to accelerate the rate of their economic and social development. The current level of computer utilisation, however, remains low. There is uncertainty as to why this is so since our present understanding of the prevailing rationality in strategic information systems decision-making by indigenous firms is incomplete and has not been adequately captured in any established body of knowledge. This research sought to help address the problem of low utilisation by conducting exploratory case study research into strategic IS decision-making, and by the development of a framework of good practice to assist indigenous firms in their strategic decision-making. This research contends that the underlying cause of lower levels of utilisation of technology by indigenous companies is their particular environmental and financial circumstances, coupled with a lack of models to assist this management process. Iterative case study research was conducted on manufacturing and banking firms. The results of this research should be interpreted through the limitations of a single study in a single country, however, it provides a more detailed understanding of the dynamics of SISP by indigenous companies than has been offered previously. The major research outcome is a framework of practical SISP models of decision-making, sectoral placement and stages of development which can be applied to assist firms in their determination of appropriate actions and directions. Moreover, the research processes and techniques utilised can be applied by investigators in other contexts where they seek to examine qualitatively relationships between factors, processes and levels of utilisation of Information Technology.

This thesis analyses the adoption of a mix of franchised and company-owned outlets among firms, namely, contractual heterogeneity within the firm. Contractual heterogeneity is explained by the existing literature as due to heterogeneous characteristics of the downstream outlets of a company. Such correspondence, however, is arguably at variance with reality. Furthermore, this literature has not been able to provide an answer to contractual heterogeneity in the presence of downstream homogeneity. This study contributes to the subject by proposing one such answer. The investigation is presented in two main parts. The first part provides a theoretical analysis of the problem and sets out a model representing the explanation proposed. The second part consists of an empirical investigation of the hypotheses set out in the first part. This empirical investigation is based ofdata collected by means of a survey of UK firms conducted specifically for the purpose of this study. The empirical analysis is performed by means of both a qualitative and an econometric study. The explanation uncovered by our theory, supported by our empirical results, shows that under certain conditions contract mixing represents a separating equilibrium which enables the company upstream (principal) to overcome problems related to hidden action, hidden information and uncertainty downstream. Under certain circumstances such organisational structure represents the 'optimal choice' for the principal in the trade-off between incentives and risk sharing. At the same time, it proves to be optimal for the heterogeneous agents (downstream) by providing them with their maximum level of expected utility. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study that investigates both sides of this agency relationship. In other words, this study demonstrates that the choice of a 'mixed' organisational firm can be driven by efficiency reasons rather than competition reducing targets by the firm.

The recent privatisation of careers guidance provision in the United Kingdom has resulted in major cultural change in the organisation of guidance companies. This research examines the effect this external change has had on the quality of working life for professionals engaged in the practice of careers guidance. The intention of the policy was to improve service delivery not the quality of careers guidance. Nevertheless, the implementation of the policy has had a discernible effect on the way professionals experience work and on the guidance they give. Questions of professional ownership and protectionism arise and are addressed with reference to guidance and ethical frameworks. Field research was undertaken with careers practitioners working in the South East and in the North of England. The data collection comprised a questionnaire administered to these two groups, followed by focus groups conducted with some respondents from the South East sample. The concern was to understand how these careers professionals are finding their way in changed circumstances; the approach was phenomenological and interpretative (Huberman & Miles, 1994). The findings demonstrate that guidance professionals are feeling under pressure from targets introduced after contracting out. Practitioners are struggling to satisfy the individual needs of their clients against policy requirements for standardised outcomes: a tension familiar in the professionalism and managerialism debate (Friedson, 1994; Edwards, 1998 and Becher, 1999). This pressure is exacerbated by the anticipation of further policy changes for careers guidance delivery. Where the organisation sees the strategic imperative as contract compliance, commercial success has been at some cost to guidance professionals and their practice. A more explicit consideration of ethical practice during strategy formulation might be a way forward in the management of change in careers companies. There is evidence that policy fails fully to understand how careers guidance works.

Is it beneficial for firms to tailor their new product development (NPD) strategies to accommodate different project situations/conditions? This thesis examines the applicability of contingency theory to product innovation management. Based on an extensive literature review, information processing and knowledge accumulation are interpreted as the cognitive core of NPD, which further forms the basis of this study. The concept of "fit" provides a necessary focus for statistical analyses, where information processing and organisational learning models are presented to compare the use of these models and their associated NPD contingent situations/conditions. The development of the research instrument was guided by previous literature and its validity and reliability tested in a pilot study. A project-level study involving 112 NPD cases from 53 Taiwanese firms, selected via a representative sampling design, was undertaken. Research data were acquired via a semi-structural questionnaire and through in-depth interviews with managers. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques were applied, to examine the nature of the research domain, and to retain the ability to generalize research findings to the sampling frame. This study provides better insight into the dynamics of product innovation. Multivariate techniques were successfully used to develop a typology for differentiating NPD projects. For consideration of internal contingent factors, NPD projects were classified into Easy-to-Produce Radicals, Hard-to-Produce Radicals, Untried Incrementals, and Tried and Tested Incrementals. For consideration of external contingent factors, three NPD market conditions were identified, i.e., Turbulent Market, Declining Market, and Stable Market. The findings suggest that internal conringent factors strongly affect the pattern of projecr-level information processing, knowledge accumulation, and NPD structural design, while external contingent factors have a limited effect upon NPD. This study contributes to NPD management theory in three key areas: (1) The hidden structure of NPD contingencies is uncovered in a systematic way. This provides a basis for future studies, in which these contingent factors can be controlled and the effect on other NPD activities can be observed more closely. (2) By combining qualitative and quantitative techniques in a single research design, both the structure and the process of product innovation are observed, This allowed the researcher to present a more detailed anatomy of NPD information processing. (3) Previous academic work into NPD contingency management was mainly based on hypothesized contingency variables, such as radical/incremental innovations or routine/nonroutine tasks; these classifications are too broad and fail to reveal the true nature of NPD. The current stud y differentiates NPD projects based on situations/conditions empirically identified from fieldwork; this further extends the frontier of conventional NPD contingency studies.

This study attempts to explore how national culture, leaders' financial control factors, and other situational factors affect the transference of management control systems (MCSs) within MNCs. If national cultural factors are important, then a "fitting" policy may be better than a "shared" policy and the corporation would take into account the host national culture and so adjust its MCSs in foreign operations. However, if a firm's leader keeps tight financial control, then a "shared" policy may be maintained and its headquarters can more easily transfer its system to its foreign operations. In addition, some situational factors of the overseas operation could affect the transference of MCSs from headquarters. This study not only controls for some contingencies but also carefully selects relevant situational factors to observe the relationship between MCS transfer and those contingencies. This research uses the comparative case study method with a qualitative approach to explore the relationships of MCS transfer and national culture, leaders' financial control factors and other situational factors. In particular, the study strongly emphasises the elements of national culture and financial control factors. For achieving the research purposes, four main propositions in the research are explored. Using Hofstede's cultural dimensions, the first proposition compares the MCSs of Taiwanese and European operations of four Taiwanese case firms. However, only five out of the ten components of MCSs are shown to be influenced by cultural factors. Within a MNC, national culture may often be imbedded in relevant contingencies. The second proposition representing the relationships between national culture and leaders' financial control factors was also examined, but these relationships were not found to be strong in this research. A leaders' financial control style is based on operating philosophy representing special management values. The third proposition, the relationship between leaders' financial control style and the transference of MCSs, showed a strong relationship. Overall, except for the rewarding process, the leaders' financial control factors had obvious impacts on the transference of MCSs. Four situational factors including size, age, approach to acquisition, and business focus of European operations were observed in the research. The fourth proposition assesses whether these factors will significantly affect the transference of MCSs from Taiwanese operations to European operations. The results show that significant impacts from the factors of size and business focus exist. The main conclusions from the research are, firstly, that the higher the degree of the leaders' financial control in a MNC, the more the MCSs were transferred to overseas operations, and vice versa. Secondly, the higher the degree of financial control in one MNC, the lower the impact of MCS design from host cultural factors, and vice versa. Finally, the more favourable the situational environment in a firm's overseas operation, the more the MCSs could be transferred to the operation.

Individual consumers as well as managers within any organisation regularly make purchasing decisions. Some of these decisions will relate to product or service markets that are characterised by homogeneity in all aspects except price. There may be a benefit, therefore, from searching for a lower price. The bulk of this thesis is concerned with investigating individual search behaviour when making purchases in such circumstances. After a comprehensive review of formal search models, together with the corresponding experimental evidence, a series of new experiments are described that, in particular, uncover several heuristics that might govern search behaviour in practice. A large number of simulated purchases is used to assess the performance of these heuristics in comparison with the optimal, theoretical model. A related judgemental bias - functional fixation - is also reviewed in detail and tested experimentally. Finally, the understanding of individual search behaviour is further developed using a research experiment set in a more complex, and less highly structured, business decision context.