According to global statistics more than half of all people living with HIV are women, the majority of whom live in sub-Saharan Africa. South Africa adapted the WHO guidelines on PMTCT to the local situation. In South Africa the prevalence of HIV amongst pregnant women attending public antenatal care is high, although new infections are declining. Studies on missed opportunities in PMTCT have been conducted in other areas of South Africa, but none in the North West Province. Three health institutions deemed to have more patient attendance were chosen for the study from a particular sub-district. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the missed opportunities in the PMTCT programme in a sub-district of the North West Province, the results of which may assist in the improvement of PMTCT services. A descriptive study design was used to identify and describe the missed opportunities in the PMTCT programme during pregnancy, labour and postnatal period. The sample consisted of 125 the records of pregnant women whose babies were born in January 2010. Entry to the health care facilities was gained through written permissions from the Department of Health and the facilities. Missed opportunities identified were that 0.8% (1/125) of pregnant women whose records were audited, was not tested for HIV infections and 9.6% (12/125) had no information on testing. Of the 35 women who were found to be HIV positive, only 74.3% (26/35) had confirmatory test done while it was not done in 2.9% (1/35). Furthermore, only 57.1% (20/35) had their blood for CD4 cell count taken, for 2.9% (1/35) no blood was taken for CD4 cell count and there was no information for the remaining 40.0% (14/35). Only 2.9% (1/35) HIV positive pregnant women continued with HAART during labour, 62.9% (22/35) received ARVs for PMTCT and for 34.2% (12/35) there was no information recorded. Prophylaxis for prolonged rupture of membranes was not given in 5.7% (2/35) of these women during labour. There were no records of any TB screening for such women and infant feeding counselling were never carried out. Lack of recording was the major problem identified in this study. / MCur, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

HIV/AIDS is the most threatening and challenging infectious diseases of our time, with the highest increase of newly infected cases reported. This infectious disease was discovered in the early eighties under homosexual men and was later to be discovered in heterosexuals. HIV is a systemic immunosuppressive disorder which causes a depletion of CD4+ T cells and develops into the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - AIDS. Africa is the continent most affected by HIV/AIDS with the southern parts of Africa having the highest prevalence rates compared to the rest of Africa. Statistics indicate that AIDS is responsible for 3% of deaths in children worldwide - one in seven people dying of an HIV-related illness is a child under the age of 15 years. It was stated by the WHO that countries should develop improved antiretrovirals regimes for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission. Difficulties in administering antiretrovirals (ARVs) to patients (especially children) are the strict dosage regimes and the severe adverse reactions. These factors complicate patient adherence. The list of problems in treating patients is endless and includes the distribution, stability as well as the low efficacy of these drugs. Most of the above mentioned problems and obstacles related to ARVs and ARV treatment could be minimized or eliminated by the use of a stable and effective drug delivery system. Enhancing ARV treatment may be accomplished by the use of the Pheroid™ drug delivery system. Pheroids™ consists mainly of fatty acids and sterile nitrous oxide gassed water. Pharmacological active substances are entrapped into submicron and micron sized structures called Pheroids™. Research showed promising results and advantages in delivering drugs through oral and transdermal routes using Pheroid™ technology. The focus of this study was to test the possible enhancement of the efficacy of antiretrovirals using Pheroid™ technology. The assays used to study this possible enhancement were a modified neutral red and a modified 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium (MTT) assay. These assays confirmed and illustrated the toxic and protective properties of the tested ARVs (stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine). An MT-2 cell line was used and infected with an HIV-1 strain, SW7-TCL. Applying Pheroid™ technology in these assays resulted in massive cell death, due to increased ARV toxic levels within the cells. Viability tests proved that Pheroids™ had no effect on the viability of cells at the concentration typically used. This confirmed the enhancing properties of Pheroids™ in the delivery of drugs into the cells. The MTT assay was further adapted from a seven day incubation period to a three day incubation period. By using a low concentration series and a three day incubation period the loss of cells through toxicity was partially overcome. One of the problems that arose form this study was the non-reproducibility of the results. Absorbance levels fluctuated at specific concentrations of the same ARV, which cause difficulties in comparing results. This result was repeatedly confirmed in this syncytium forming infection model. In conclusion, Pheroid™ technology enhanced the delivery of ARVs into the cells although it resulted in cell death. Both the neutral red and MTT assays were found to be inaccurate but further development, research and assay optimization could result in improved in vitro studies. The article format was used for this thesis, as described in the general academic rules in section A.13.7.3 of the North West University. Chapter 1 deals with HIV/AIDS related problems, statistics and treatment obstacles. Chapter 2 is a summary of the cell viability assays used in this study. Pheroid™ technology and its application to ARV treatment are dealt with in chapter 3. The proposed article for submission in the journal Cell Death and Differentiation has been included in chapter 4. Some of the results from the study are reported in the article and annexures, whilst other results are shown and discussed in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 gives a conclusion and final summary of this study. All other experimental methods and results are enclosed in the annexures, as is the "Guide for authors" for the article. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

In South Africa, which has the largest HIV infected population world-wide, more than 5 million individuals presently live with HIV and AIDS (Evian, 2002:20; LINAIDS, 2004:19). These HIV-infected patients in turn affect the family structure within which they find themselves in a specific community. According to Saleeby (1992:54) and Barnett and Blaikie (1992:34), several families in South Africa are affected by the challenges posed by AIDS. This research forms part of the group research project, Tswaragano, which deals with an investigation into the competencies, abilities and strengths of the family of the HIV-positive patient while supporting the patient at home (Wessels, 2003:54). Problems such as unemployment, poverty, crime and changed demands in the community where these families live and increased challenges place a tremendous amount of stress on the families (Saleeby, 1992:54; Barnett & Blaikie, 1992:34). A vicious circle of AIDS and poverty is clearly confirmed and it has been found that people who live with HIV and AIDS need more support than health care alone (Booysen et al,. 2004:817-826). It is evident from the literature that, although information regarding HIV and AIDS is conveyed during pre- and post-HIV and AIDS test counselling, the transmission of information is not necessarily successful (Parker et al., 1998:18). A question which hence arises is whether the HIV positive patient and his family who support him at home fully grasp the necessary information. Greeff and Du Plessis (2001:2) confirm that health workers in the North-West Province do not convey the information effectively. Several factors probably contribute to defective information transfer between the health worker and the patient. One factor is that if the environment within which information is conveyed is not comfortable and mutual respect and trust between the health worker and the HIV positive patient is limited, the interpretation of information on HIV and AIDS is impaired (Allender & Spratley, 2001:163). A further aspect that should be taken into consideration is that HIV and AIDS-related information can be understood and internalised by the HIV positive patient in different ways, since several interpretation possibilities exist for information that is conveyed (Parker et al., 1998:20). Health workers who convey the information to the patient does however not always determine whether the HIV positive patient understands and internalises the information correctly (Parker et al., 1998:21). The facts mentioned above not only limit the HIV positive patient's understanding but also eventually the understanding of the family who have to support the HIV positive patient at home, regarding HIV and AIDS. The family can be seen as a primary core support resource for the HIV positive patient (Uys, 1999:2), and limited understanding impairs support at home (Hartman, 1981:10). With this is meant that the family is the "social service agency in meeting the social, educational and health care needs" of its members. The aim of this research was to investigate and describe the understanding of the HIV positive patient and the family regarding HIV and AIDS-related information. Guidelines were formulated to promote the understanding of the family of the HIV positive patient regarding HIV and AIDS-related information with the view to empower the family of the HIV positive patient in order to be able to support the patient at home. The research design was quantitative and descriptive by nature. It entails a pilot study in the Kagiso district, Vryburg area (Bophirima) of the North-West Province. The actual research study was performed in the Primary Health Clinics in the Potchefstroom district of the southern area of the North-West Province. Purposive sampling was performed (Burns & Grove, 2001:376; Brink, 1996:141; Abramson & Abramson, 1999:70; Bainbridge, 1989:46). Selected health workers acted voluntarily as go-betweens to identify HIV positive patients and their families who are prepared to participate in the research and who answer to the criteria, and to assist in filling out the questionnaires. The questionnaires were analysed by means of the frequency method with the assistance of the Statistical Consultation Services of the North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus and reported on by means of tables and graphs (Brink, 1996:499; Burns & Grove, 1997:430). From the research it was found that, although information transfer regarding HIV and AIDS does take place, there still are many voids in respect of the understanding of this information and this pertains to HIV positive patient as well as the families. The researcher has come to the conclusion that the proposed guidelines in order to empower families of the HIV-positive patients to support these patients at home therefore is obvious and important. Furthermore, the researcher is of opinion that families midst the difficult circumstances will realise their own strengths if they could acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. Recommendations were made for nursing education, for the practice of the community nurse as well as for nursing research. Guidelines were formulated to empower the family of the HIV positive patient to be able to support the patient at home. / Thesis (M.Cur.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Background: As a result of the restructuring of the South African Police Service (SAPS) in 1996 and various other factors, Police Social Work Services decided to broaden the scope of its services by developing and introducing proactive, personnel capacity building programmes. By 1999, 15 such programmes were developed. The need subsequently arose for a comprehensive impact assessment of these programmes and the Evaluation of Personnel Capacity Building Programmes (EPCBP) study was launched in 2001. The evaluation of the HIV and AIDS Awareness programme formed part of this research. Objectives: The primary aim of the study was to determine the effect of the HIV and AIDS Awareness Programme on SAPS personnel's knowledge, attitude and behaviour. Procedure: In the research, the comparison group pre-test and post- test design and triangulation were used. Six measurement scales and a presenter's evaluation questionnaire were developed and completed by 261 experimental group respondents, 51 comparison group members and 24 presenters. Results: Through the triangulation of measurements it was determined that the HIV and AIDS Awareness programme had a practical significant effect on the respondents knowledge, attitude and behaviour. It was thus an effective tool in the hands of Police Social Work Service that not only empowered SAPS personnel to lead more healthy professional lives, but one that also enhanced their personal well-being. / Thesis (M.A. (MW))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities, Journalism and Media Studies, 2013 / HIV and AIDS came into the national spotlight as soon as the ANC government took over from the Apartheid regime in South Africa and media coverage of the pandemic has attracted considerable attention. This research investigates how journalists view the way they covered HIV and AIDS in the new South Africa — after 1994. This was a time when the journalism profession was faced with a wide range of expectations including educating people about their rights, exposing the escalation of crime and corruption, reporting on service delivery and promoting social cohesion or transformation. Arguably, this was also a time when the government expected the media to help it build new social cohesiveness and be less critical of its shortcomings. The research investigates how journalists handled the interplay of news values, journalistic practices and political pressures of HIV/AIDS reporting after 1994. Careful attention is given specifically to the period of 1996 to 1999 since this period was marked by many HIV and AIDS controversies. The Virodene saga, one of the scandals that saw HIV and AIDS making headlines at the time, is used as the primary case study of this investigation. This study uses the social responsibility theory as the main theoretical framework. The theory states that the media has an obligation to educate and inform people; thereby playing a monitorial or watchdog role — making sure the government is accountable to the people who voted it in. The research used in-depth interviews with eight journalists who covered HIV and AIDS in the new South Africa to get their views on the issue and a brief content analysis to understand how HIV and AIDS scandals broke and how journalists handled them. Though previous research shows that HIV and AIDS was not well covered and only made headlines when the story was a controversy, findings in this study challenge these notions. The research found that despite feeling the need to give the government a chance to mature (collaborative role), journalists chose to play the social responsibility or watchdog role in HIV reporting by covering facts despite this reflecting badly on the government. The paper also points out that the Virodene story ‘automatically’ turned into a scandal and in newsroom terms, became a political story, not an ordinary a health story. Although journalistic professional values have been criticised for causing journalists to favour certain issues over others, in this case they exposed government’s shortfalls and averted a potentially disastrous situation. This research not only positions itself to offer deep understanding of the sensitive issue of HIV and AIDS reporting but also offers insights into the very ethos of the journalism profession itself.

Student Number : 9801839H - MA research report - School of Human and Community Development - Faculty of Humanities / The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) epidemic has spread throughout the world and its prevalence in sport has received increasing attention. The aim of this exploratory study was to examine the knowledge, attitudes and relationship behaviour with respect to HIV and AIDS among athletes participating in contact sport. In addition, this study included a preliminary investigation into whether sport participation facilitates the development of life skills which would act as a buffer against the risky behaviours that increases vulnerability to infection. A self-report questionnaire was specifically constructed to address the aims of the study. The sample comprised of 38 male athletes between the ages of 18 and 30, from the following codes of contact sport: boxing, rugby, and taekwondo in Gauteng. Content analysis and descriptive statistics were used to analyse the participants’ responses. The findings indicated that the athletes had a good level of knowledge, but some misconceptions still remain. Attitudes of the athletes appeared to be in favour of mandatory testing and disclosure of one’s status. Positions on the participation of HIV-positive athletes in sport alternated between exclusion on the basis of safety and inclusion so as not to facilitate the proliferation of stigma. Few athletes reported continued involvement in high-risk behaviour, but it was encouraging that the largest part of participants declared exhibiting preventative behaviour. Sport participation was found to have some biopsychosocial impact on participants, which may extend to enhance health-seeking behaviour. Research findings may be fundamental in directing future AIDS prevention efforts within and beyond the sports arena.

Thesis (Ph. D. (Social Work)) --University of Limpopo, 2018 / Despite the laudable progress on HIV and AIDS interventions encountered in South Africa, new HIV infection remains a challenge. Limpopo Department of Agriculture is not an exception as far as new HIV infections are concerned, regardless of the intervention efforts made. This study aimed at exploring on perceptions of LDA employees on social-behavioural and structural core drivers of HIV infection. Qualitative research methodologies were applied. A purposive sample of twenty participants (10 men and 10 women) was selected from Department of Agriculture, Mopani District, Limpopo Province. Constructivism and structuralism theoretical framework were used to navigate the study. Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were designed. Data was collected through interviews, audio-recorded and transcribed. Eight steps of data analysis were followed as proposed by Creswell. Guidelines for the prevention of new HIV infection were developed. Some of the major findings are that: the socio-behavioural core drivers that place all partners at risk of contracting new HIV infections is the Multiple Sexual Partnerships (MSPs). Age-disparate relationships in a workplace were also socio-behavioural drivers of new HIV infection. Young women and men who enter into age-disparate relationships have intention of obtaining permanent employment. Patriarchy was found to be amongst the structural core drivers of new HIV infections. The fact that men are not tested involuntarily is viewed as a structural barrier towards eliminating the spread of new HIV infections. Stigma has been also found to be a core driver of new HIV infections. Some conclusions made are: MSPs is a closed sexual network system, characterised by “secrecy” and “trust”. Despite some reforms purporting to improve women’s status, patriarchal domination is still at its toll. Unsymbolised stigma remains a threat towards elimination of the spread of HIV infections. The major recommendations are that working women still require empowerment in number of areas of their social functioning, and the leadership involvement in the fight against the spread of new HIV infections.

Thesis (M.Cur.) --University of Limpopo, 2013 / Previous research about people living with HIV and AIDS has highlighted social support as an important determinant of health outcomes; i.e. perceived support to be associated with adjustment and coping in relation to HIV diagnosis, as well as its potentially chronic and disability course . The purpose of the study is to determine the effects of HIV and AIDS on the socio-economic status of people infected with HIV and AIDS at the village of Ga-Mathabatha in the Capricorn District of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. In this study, a qualitative, descriptive, exploratory and contextual design is used. A non-probability purposive sampling technique was used to carefully select the sample based on the knowledge that the participants had about the phenomena studied. Semi-structured, one-on-one, in-depth interview with a schedule guide were conducted until saturation of data was reached. To initiate each interview, a central question was was asked: “Describe the effects that HIV and AIDS have on your socio-economic status”. Participants were given an opportunity to describe their experiences with regard to the effects of HIV and AIDS on their socio-economic status. Field notes of semi-structured, one-to-one, in-depth interview session were recorded. A voice recorder was used to capture all the semi-structured, one-to-one, in-depth interviews. The recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim, using Tesch’s qualitative data analysis method. Trustworthiness was ensured by using Guba’s model criteria; i.e. credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability. The results indicate that HIV and AIDS have an effect on the socio-economic status of HIV-positive people. Ethical standards for nurse researchers were adhered to, namely permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Medunsa Research and Ethics Committee. Permission to conduct the research project was granted by the Limpopo Turfloop Campus, Limpopo Provincial Department of Health and Social Development, and the ART clinic management at the Ga-mathabatha Relebogile Wellness and ART Clinic. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, written informed consent was obtained from each participant before he/she could participate in the study. The quality of the research was also insured. Five themes and their sub-themes, and the literature control are presented in the discussion of the research findings. The findings of this study have a central story line which reveals that participants are sharing similar experiences in terms of socio-economic factors after they have tested HIV-positive which are related to several factors; including the involvement of family and friends in their care, changes encountered which affect their social life, household income, and their living conditions. The following five themes and their sub-themes have emerged during data analysis: Theme 1: Different sources of income of HIV-positive people; Theme 2: Living conditions of HIV-positive people; Theme 3: Consequences related to HIV and AIDS disease progression; Theme 4: Support and care to HIV-positive people; and Theme 5: Disclosure versus non-disclosure of HIV-positive status. The results of this study are limited to the Relebogile Wellness and ART Clinic in the Ga-Mathabatha area of the Capricorn District in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study findings cannot be generalised to all clinics that are issuing ARVs in the Capricorn District. Study conclusions emphasise the fact that there is a need for HIV and AIDS positive patients to receive continuous support from family, friends, and the community with the purpose of enabling them to cope emotionally, socially, and economically. It also reveals the importance of participants to take their treatment as prescribed with the aim of improving their immune systems. The recommendations emphasise the fact that there is a need for HIV and AIDS patients to receive continuous support from family, friends, and the community with the purpose of enabling them to cope emotionally, socially, and economically. TERMINOLOGY Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) HIV is a virus which has a known and distinct capacity to cause Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome once it has entered the body. It attacks a person’s immune system (Kaushik, Pandey & Pande, 2006:43) Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) It is the fourth stage of HIV infection and it is usually characterised by a CD4 count of less than 200. It is not a specific illness but rather a collection of illnesses that affect the body to such an extent that the weakened immune system struggles to respond effectively (Kaushik et al., 2006:43) Effects Effects are consequences that are brought about by a cause (Kaushik, Pandey & Pande, 2006:56). Examples of effects are changes in the health status, and standard of living of a population as a result of a programme, project or activity. In this study, effects refer to changes in the socio-economic status of a population that have occurred as a result of the breadwinner in a family who has become unable to go to work due to a weakened immune system that results from HIV and AIDS. Epidemic It is the occurrence of cases of an illness (or an outbreak) in a specific population with a frequency clearly in excess of the normal probability (Giesecke, 2007:19). In this study, an epidemic refers to the effect HIV and AIDS has on the population. Socio-economic status Socio-economic status refers to the standardised way of grouping a population in terms of parental occupation, income, power, prestige, and education (Kirsh, 2006:287). In this study, socio-economic status defines a person’s monthly income, education, and occupation. Family A group of people living together in a permanent arrangement, separated from the rest of the world by the walls of the family dwelling and by societal guarantees of family privacy (Bachmann & Booyens, 2006:4). In this study, a family denotes those people who are living under the same roof with a breadwinner who is HIV-positive.

Thesis (Ph.D.(Educational Psychology)) --University of Limpopo, 2015. / The aim of this study was to adapt an HIV and AIDS intervention programme that may change the knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of adolescents in Mpumalanga high schools. Mixed-method of qualitative and quantitative designs were used to achieve the objectives. The qualitative design consisted of peer mentors (N=141) who were interviewed in the focus group to provide information pertaining to the HIV and AIDS intervention that may change the knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of vulnerable adolescents in Mpumalanga high schools. The quantitative design consisted of Grade 8 learners (N=1 085) who were used in the evaluation of the adapted HIV and AIDS intervention. Eeducators (N=11) piloted and monitored the administration of the adapted HIV and AIDS intervention. Results from the qualitative study suggested a four unit HIV and AIDS intervention programme with the following aims: (a) to empower adolescents to respond to risky behaviours, (b) to enable adolescents in Mpumalanga to acquire necessary knowledge, attitudes and skills that will protect adolescents from HIV and AIDS infection, (c) the programme must also aim at the development of self-in-society and (d) an abridged programme that will run for one school term that is more suitable. Results from quantitative evaluation revealed that the adapted HIV and AIDS intervention managed to increase, slightly, the acquisition of the knowledge and behaviour of participants, although the significant tests indicated that the observed rate of increase was statistically not significant at 0.05 levels. No impact was found on attitudes scales. It was recommended that the support of both adolescents and parents is vital for the success of any of any HIV and AIDS intervention programme. Opening of the community youth friendly health clinics with highly trained practitioners was also recommended as an essential element in HIV and AIDS prevention. Key concepts: Adolescents, Attitudes, Behaviour, HIV and AIDS intervention, Knowledge and Knowledge attitudes-behaviour practices.

Thesis (M.A. (MW))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.