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The spatial distribution of a species is not random or uniform across all landscapes, nor is it independent of resource availability and risk of predation. A key aspect in the study of wildlife ecology is understanding how a species evaluates its surroundings and selects habitat that offers advantages to survival and reproductive success. In theory, an individual should select habitat that offers adequate resources to meet its biological requirements and allows it to adjust its use of resources based on a variety of abiotic and biotic habitat factors. Relationships between wildlife populations and habitat characteristics are difficult to assess, yet identification and characterization of these relationships can improve delineation of limiting habitat factors needed for effective conservation and management. The eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is a small Mephitid (weasel family) that was once a fairly common furbearer throughout the central and southern United States, with annual range-wide harvests of over 100,000 individuals. In Virginia, the spotted skunk is classified as vulnerable, and anecdotal evidence suggests that this species has been rare or largely absent from the central and southern Appalachians over the last two decades. Limited knowledge of spotted skunk habitat associations in Virginia dictate the need for research on this species of concern. The aim of this study was to determine the associations of environmental characteristics ofwith spotted skunk habitat selection and genetic differentiation. I assessed first-order habitat selection by conducting an analysis of predicted occurrence at the landscape scale. Next, I assessed second- and third-order selection using resource utilization functions to determine habitat selection among, and within, home ranges. Further, I assessed fourth-order selection by identifying microhabitat selection and resource use at spotted skunk den site. Finally, I evaluated genetic diversity and population structure of spotted skunks in the Appalachian Mountains. I found that spotted skunk habitat is distributed in small, spatially disjunct patches and that movement, home range size, and resource selection are impacted by availability of habitat and the isolation and/or fragmentation of this suitable habitat. I found overall low genetic diversity and evidence of inbreeding within populations and geographic patterns of genetic differentiation with distinct subpopulations isolated by unsuitable landscape characteristics. Application of these results will contribute to more effective conservation of eastern spotted skunks throughout the Appalachian Mountains. / Doctor of Philosophy / Wildlife species do not occur throughout the landscape randomly or evenly, but rather choose their locations based on the availability of food, cover, and water. A key aspect in the study of wildlife ecology is understanding how a species chooses its natural surroundings and selects habitat that allows it to survive and reproduce. In theory, an animal should choose a location that offers enough resources, such as food, cover, and water to meet its biological needs and allows it to adjust based on access to these resources. By understanding the how the availability of these resources influences an animal's choice of location, wildlife managers can better determine the need for protection or management of the species in a given area. The eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is a small, weasel-like animal that was once fairly common throughout the central and southern United States. In Virginia, the spotted skunk is a protected species, and experts suggest that it has been rare in the central and southern Appalachians for over several decades. Because there is limited knowledge of spotted skunk habitat needs in Virginia, research on this species is necessary. The goals of this study were to determine the type of habitat in which spotted skunks are choosing and how it affects the species genetic makeup. First, I determined in which general areas spotted skunks exist in Virginia. Next, I determined that the habitat for spotted skunks includes forests with ample bushy plants and rocks to hide from predators. I then examined the genetics of spotted skunks to determine relatedness among individuals and whether inbreeding was occurring. Finally, I compared the relatedness of pairs of spotted skunks to the distance between their locations and found that skunks that are located on the same mountain range are more closely related to each other than to skunks on different mountain ranges. These results will inform wildlife managers on how to provide spotted skunks with the habitat resources they need to survive and reproduce successfully, thus promoting skunk conservation.

The Virginia northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus) and the Carolina northern flying squirrel (G. s. coloratus) are geographically isolated subspecies of the northern flying squirrel found in montane conifer-northern hardwood forests the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. Both subspecies were listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1985 as endangered, and accordingly, the Virginia northern flying squirrel and the Carolina northern flying squirrel are considered high conservation priorities by state and federal agencies. Although the listing prompted work to determine the broad distribution and habitat associations of both subspecies, numerous data gaps remain, particularly with regard to habitat management and development of efficient monitoring techniques. Regional interest in restoration of red spruce (Picea rubens) forests in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains, considered to be the flying squirrels' primary habitat, increases the importance of understanding habitat selection and managers' ability to detect squirrels at multiple spatial and temporal scales. I compared two novel survey techniques (ultrasonic acoustics and camera trapping) to a traditional technique (live trapping) to determine which method had higher probability of detection (POD) and lower latency to detection (LTD, number of survey nights to initial detection) of northern flying squirrels in the region. Both novel techniques performed better than the traditional techniques with higher POD and lower LTD. I found that ultrasonic acoustics and camera trapping had similar POD, whereas LTD was significantly lower with ultrasonic acoustics versus camera trapping. Additionally, the ability to distinguish between northern flying squirrels and the parapatric southern flying squirrel (G. volans) also is possible with ultrasonic acoustics, but not with camera trapping. This ultimately makes ultrasonic acoustics the most effective and efficient method to obtain detection/non-detection data. To better inform management decisions and activities (i.e., red spruce restoration), this method should be used in conjunction with existing traditional monitoring techniques that provide demographic data such as nest boxes. I assessed habitat selection of radio-collared Virginia and Carolina northern flying squirrels at multiple spatial scales with use-availability techniques. I analyzed field data from paired telemetry and random points and determined Virginia northern flying squirrels microhabitat (within-stand habitat) selection showed preference for conifer-dominant stands with deep organic horizons, a factor that might be directly linked to food (hypogeal fungi) availability. Similar to previous studies on the Virginia northern flying squirrel on the landscape- and stand-level using Euclidean distance based analysis, Carolina northern flying squirrels also selectively preferred montane conifer forests in greater proportion than their availability on the landscape. Additionally, Carolina northern flying squirrels did not select for or against northern hardwood forests regardless of availability on the landscape. Habitat preference of both subspecies indicates that red spruce restoration activities may be important for the persistence of Appalachian northern flying squirrels into an uncertain future, as anthropogenic climate change may cause further reduction of the quality and extent of high-elevation montane conifer forests in the region. / Ph. D.

This project had 2 major objectives. The first objective was to assess how well the revised U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Foraging Habitat Guidelines depict good quality habitat for the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) at Camp Lejeune, NC. To accomplish this, I used multiple linear and logistic regression to examine the relationships between fitness, habitat use, home range size, and habitat characteristics described in the guidelines. I assumed that habitat characteristics that confer quality were related to higher fitness, greater habitat use, and reduced home range size. To a large extent, the guidelines are validated. Red-cockaded woodpeckers responded favorably to habitat that mimics the historical, mature, and fire-maintained pine forests of the southeastern U.S., characterized by high densities of large pines, low densities of small and medium pines, and a lush herbaceous groundcover. Variables positively associated with habitat use and fitness were associated with reduced home range size, and those negatively associated with habitat use and fitness with increased home range size. Percent herbaceous groundcover was a significant regressor indicative of quality in every model. The second objective was to assess how well USFWS foraging partitions represent habitat used by red-cockaded woodpeckers. I conducted home range follows of 23 groups of red-cockaded woodpeckers and estimated the percentage of each home range encompassed by partitions of varying radii. The percentage of the actual home range included in the partition increased as a function of partition radius. The standard 800 m circular partition, on average, included 91% of the home range, but significant variation existed between groups. / Master of Science

I radiotracked 31 bog turtles (<i>Clemmys muhlenbergii</i>) from May 1995 to December 1996 at 4 study areas in southwestern Virginia. Radio location data were used to provide measures of annual activity, spatial distributions of animals, and habitat selection. The techniques I used in this study were as follows: distance measurements between consecutive locations, home range estimators (Minimum Convex Polygon [MCP] and cluster analysis), compositional analysis of habitat selection, and measurement of microhabitat variables. Results suggest a random pattern of movement by bog turtles within habitats. Average net movements recorded between consecutive locations (separated by < 7 days) during 1995 and 1996 measured 15 m and 20 m for females and 14 m and 23 m for males respectively. Eighty-six percent of all net movements (n = 824) were less than 30 m, whereas only 2% were greater than 100 m. In 1996, average home range sizes (95% MCP, 95% cluster) were 0.47 ha and 0.17 ha for females and were 0.57 ha and 0.13 ha for males. Bog turtles selected wet meadow areas and bulrush (<i>Scirpus</i> spp.) patches more than expected randomly and avoided dry meadow areas and streams. Turtles were located more frequently in mud (x = 24.3 cm) and water (x = 5.2 cm) than expected by random selection (P < 0.001). I found no differences between sexes in movement, home range, or habitat selection by bog turtles. Bog turtles select specialized habitat types and microhabitats within wetlands. Large-scale movements are infrequent and the risk of site isolation may be high if wetland habitat loss continues at historic rates. Future management should protect spatially-close sites which contain multiple habitat types, soft substrate, and pockets of water. / Master of Science

American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) are a small falcon with an expansive range across North America. However, kestrels have been reported to be declining since the 1960s, with the primary cause of decline unknown. With previous research focusing on the summer breeding season, researchers have called for additional investigation in understudied wintering and migratory periods. In Chapter 2, I quantified annual survivorship against five covariates of migrant kestrels wintering in north Texas to contribute to population level analyses across the kestrel's expansive range. Notably, I found that juvenile survival is similar to that of adults once on the wintering grounds, and that aspects of urbanization may increase survival in wintering kestrels. In Chapter 3, I outlined kestrel movement ecology by quantifying migration phenology, performance, and patterns. Additionally, I identified breeding and stopover sites and analyzed both winter and summer home ranges. In this analysis, I contributed three additional migration tracks to the five currently published. Further, I reported the first loop and indirect migration patterns to our knowledge. Overall, this research highlights understudied aspects of the kestrel full annual cycle in the winter and migratory periods, providing insight into possible causes for kestrel declines.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Johannesburg, August 2015 / The central Kalahari is likely to become hotter and drier as a result of climate change in the region. These changes may result in behavioural changes in Gemsbok due to temperature induced stress, in spite of physiological and behavioural adaptations, and are likely to manifest in a preference for particular landscape patch classes. Recent Landsat 8 satellite imagery and classification analysis were used to map landscape patch classes in a heterogeneous landscape in the central Kalahari. The classification map of the research area identified 6 classes of landscape patches used by Gemsbok. Eight collared Gemsbok were tracked by satellite to monitor their movement in their respective home ranges over a period of 9 months. Gemsbok locations were plotted on to the classification map, and location frequency distributions were produced for each landscape patch class. Gemsbok home ranges were calculated using minimum convex polygon geometry, and the available patch class areas within each home range were analysed against the usage patterns of each animal. The analysis showed less preference for shade producing classes and more preference for open classes. Exploration of the role of temperature in landscape patch selection showed that temperature is a weak predictor of patch class, that critical temperature thresholds have not yet been reached, and that Gemsbok preference for pans is more likely related to seasonally available forage and reduced predation risk in a “landscape of fear” (Laundré, Hernández, & Altendorf, 2001).