About 1,600,000 ha of desert mule deer range in Mexico are currently altered with vegetation clear-cutting and establishment of buffelgrass pastures. Consequently, the availability of resources as cover and forage from scrub vegetation has been reduced for mule deer. No previous research has been conducted to investigate how desert mule deer respond to those alterations. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to examine movements of mule deer, evaluate their home range sizes and determine habitat use, and analyze their diets in areas of central and western Sonora, Mexico. The approach involved the use of radiotelemetry techniques and GIS programs to calculate home range sizes, examine selection of vegetation associations, and identify the specific components of habitat that distinguished the characteristics of selected sites by desert mule deer. I used the microhistological technique to determine botanical components of desert mule deer diets, and compare diets of desert mule deer and cattle in habitat with buffelgrass pastures. Diet analyses included spatial and temporal comparisons of diversity and similarity indices. Sizes of home ranges were larger in the more arid environments of western Sonora (27.3 km2) than in central Sonora (14.5 km2). Desert mule deer used altered habitat differently than use areas without buffelgrass, however, there was no difference in the size of home ranges of mule deer from inside buffelgrass areas and the size of home ranges of deer in native scrub vegetation. Thermal cover, ground cover, and percent of gravel in the ground were the variables that distinguished locations selected by desert mule deer. Desert mule deer selected xeroriparian vegetation and sites closer to water sources. Water sources may have influenced mule deer to stay in buffelgrass areas despite the lack of cover and forage from shrubs and trees. For diets of mule deer, I identified 96 plant species, 69 of which have not previously been reported as forage for this herbivore. Desert mule deer and cattle shared 45 forage species from central Sonora. However, biological overlap of diets occurred only for spring. Results from these studies provide information to understand ecological relationships of desert mule deer on altered habitats.

<p>Southern Africa harbours one-third of the world&rsquo / s Testudinid species, many of which inhabit arid or semi-arid areas, but ecological information on these species is scant. I studied the habitat, morphology and ecology of Kalahari tent tortoises over 13 months in semi-arid Savanna at Benfontein farm, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. In order to allow continuous monitoring of individuals, I attached radiotransmitters to males and females, split equally between two habitats, sites E (east) and W (west), with apparent differences in vegetation structure. Results of the study were based on data obtained from 27 telemetered tortoises and 161 individuals encountered opportunistically. Female Kalahari tent tortoises were larger than males and the sex ratio did not differ from 1:1. Based on person-hours to capture tortoises, the population appeared to have a low density, with more time required to capture a juvenile (35 hours) than an adult (10-11 hours). The frequency distribution of body size ranges was indicative of recruitment. Relative age, based on annuli counts, suggested that males were younger than females, perhaps because males as the smaller sex are more predation-prone than females. Linear relationships between annuli counts and shell volume indicated that, after reaching sexual maturity, female body size increased faster in volume than did male body size, possibly because a larger volume may enhance female reproductive success. Body condition differed between sites, sexes and among seasons. The hot and dry summer may account for low summer body condition, whereas vegetation differences and size effects, respectively, may account for the low body condition of tortoises in site W and in males. Site E was sandy with grasses, particularly Schmidtia pappophoroides, being the prevalent growth form. This habitat resembled a Savanna vegetation type Schmidtia pappophoroides &ndash / Acacia erioloba described for a neighbouring reserve. Site W was stonier, dominated by shrubs, and was reminiscent of Northern Upper Karoo vegetation (NKu3). Neither site resembled Kimberley Thornveld (SVk4), the designated vegetation type of the area. Differences in substrate and grazing intensity may have contributed to site vegetation differences. Rainfall had an important influence on seasonal vegetation. Short grass abundance correlated with rainfall and annual plants sprouted after spring rain. Refuge use changed according to season and sex. Males selected denser refuges than females did, perhaps because males were smaller and more vulnerable to predation and solar heat. Tortoises selected sparse, short grass as refuges in cool months, probably to maximise basking whilst remaining in protective cover. During hot periods, mammal burrows were preferred to vegetation as refugia. The smaller males spent more time in cover than females, which may be related to predator avoidance or thermoregulation.&nbsp / Females spent more time basking than males, perhaps due to their larger size and to facilitate reproductive processes. Tortoises did not brumate, but through a combination of basking, and orientation relative to the sun in their refuges, managed to attain body temperatures that allowed small bouts of activity. Body temperature for active tortoises was similar among seasons, and was higher for more specialised active behaviours, such as feeding and socialising, than for walking. Increased activity by males in spring could relate to mating behaviour while females were more active in autumn, when they foraged more than males, perhaps due to the high cost of seasonal reproductive requirements. Males displaced further per day than did females, but home range estimates did not differ between sexes. Annual home range estimates varied substantially among individuals: 0.7&ndash / 306 ha for minimum convex polygons and 0.7&ndash / 181 ha for 95% fixed kernel estimates. The ability to&nbsp / cover large areas would assist tortoises in finding resources, e.g., food, in an area where resource distribution may be patchy. Differences among seasonal home ranges and movements probably reflect seasonal climatic change / activity areas shrinking when temperatures were extreme. In order to assess the effects of a semi-arid environment on the morphology of P. oculifer, I compared its morphology to that of its &lsquo / cool-adapted&rsquo / sister taxon Psammobates geometricus, using live and museum specimens. Both P. oculifer and P. geometricus are sexually dimorphic and differences between the two species could indicate environmental or sexual selection effects, or a combination of the two. The shorter bridge length, which allowed more leg space, and wider front feet in P. oculifer cohorts probably represent traits for manoeuvring in a sandy habitat, while wider heads in P. oculifer possibly relate to interspecific differences in diet. The flatter shell in female P. oculifer, relative to P. geometricus, may represent a trade-off between space for reproductive structures, e.g., eggs, and the need to fit into small refuges, e.g., mammal burrows. Male P. oculifer had wider shells, more space around their hind legs, and wider hind feet than P. geometricus males had, all characteristics which may assist males to fight and mate in a sandy environment.</p>

This study conducted baseline research to determine home range, movements and habitat selection of Manitoban elk (Cervus elaphus manitobensis) in the Duck Mountain (DM) of west-central Manitoba. Cow elk (n =22) were captured by helicopter net-gun and GPS radio-collared in 2005/06. Data was analyzed with ArcView 3.3 for Windows (ESRI). DM elk show selection for deciduous forest and avoidance of roads. Mean 100% MCP home ranges were 127.85 km2 with 95% and 50% adaptive kernel home range sizes of 58.24 km2 and 7.29 km2, respectively. Home range overlap occurs at all times of the year with many elk using farmland. Elk moved the least in late winter. Movements increased in the spring, declined in June with a gradual increase from July to October. Elk had generalized movement in southerly directions. No cow elk dispersed from the study area. Mean estimated calving date was June 3rd and mean estimated breeding date was September 27th. DM elk were found in mature deciduous/mixed-wood forest and shrub/grassland/prairie savannah ecosites but not found within 200 m of a road or water feature more often than expected by random. Elk were found in areas with <10% and >81% crown closure, on middle slopes and variable aspects. Elk displaced from forestry cut-blocks. Only 149 of 79,284 elk locations were within 100 m of a winter cattle operation. Recommendations to mitigate forestry and BTB impacts focus on riparian areas, road management, farming practices and hunting.

This study conducted baseline research to determine home range, movements and habitat selection of Manitoban elk (Cervus elaphus manitobensis) in the Duck Mountain (DM) of west-central Manitoba. Cow elk (n =22) were captured by helicopter net-gun and GPS radio-collared in 2005/06. Data was analyzed with ArcView 3.3 for Windows (ESRI). DM elk show selection for deciduous forest and avoidance of roads. Mean 100% MCP home ranges were 127.85 km2 with 95% and 50% adaptive kernel home range sizes of 58.24 km2 and 7.29 km2, respectively. Home range overlap occurs at all times of the year with many elk using farmland. Elk moved the least in late winter. Movements increased in the spring, declined in June with a gradual increase from July to October. Elk had generalized movement in southerly directions. No cow elk dispersed from the study area. Mean estimated calving date was June 3rd and mean estimated breeding date was September 27th. DM elk were found in mature deciduous/mixed-wood forest and shrub/grassland/prairie savannah ecosites but not found within 200 m of a road or water feature more often than expected by random. Elk were found in areas with <10% and >81% crown closure, on middle slopes and variable aspects. Elk displaced from forestry cut-blocks. Only 149 of 79,284 elk locations were within 100 m of a winter cattle operation. Recommendations to mitigate forestry and BTB impacts focus on riparian areas, road management, farming practices and hunting.

As habitat loss and fragmentation are major causes of decline in animal species, studying habitat requirements in these species is a key component of their recovery. I investigated the relationship between landscape composition and habitat use of Blanding’s turtles, Emydoidea blandingii, a freshwater turtle threatened by habitat loss and road mortality on most of its Canadian range. In 2010, I conducted a radio-telemetry survey of 44 Blanding’s turtles in southern Québec, Canada, and modelled their home range size from land cover proportions measured at many spatial scales. I also used data from a visual survey conducted in 2008 and 2009 to model wetland occupancy of the species at the landscape scale. Home range size of the Blanding’s turtle was significantly correlated to landscape composition, and the proportions of agriculture, open water and anthropogenic lands had the strongest relationships with home range size. However, those relationships were weak and the models were unable to predict home range size accurately. At the landscape scale, land cover and road density poorly predicted probability of occurrence, and Blanding’s turtles occupied wetlands in both disturbed and natural sites. Management of the species should focus on protecting sites of occurrence with high wetland density, low road density, and sufficient suitable habitat to cover their seasonal movement patterns.

This research develops spatial-explicit methods to characterize the relationship between wildlife and habitat use and selection. Both home range analysis and resource selection function (RSF) models, two common methods of representing wildlife-habitat associations, are often summarized aspatially. I apply a novel method to home range analysis which quantifies the spatial-temporal patterns of site fidelity and range drift. As a result, the spatial structure of home ranges is described, thus building on current methods which summarize ranges as aspatial metrics, often mean area. Furthermore, I develop a new method to spatially assess the ability of RSF models to predict wildlife occurrence using conditional randomization. As opposed to summarizing RSF model accuracy as a single value, I produce spatially-explicit and mappable outputs. I also demonstrate how this spatial method may be used to improve RSF model results. I apply these two spatial-temporal methods to a case study on adult female grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in the Northeastern slopes of the Canadian Rockies. Through describing the spatial-temporal pattern of grizzly bear home range change, I determine that offspring status and season impact the size and spatial configuration of a bear’s home range. By spatially evaluating the predictive success of a RSF model, I locate and quantify the spatial pattern of areas where the model is under-predicting bear occurrence using Local Moran’s I. Further, I evaluate landscape characteristics at these locations and suggest additions to the model which may increase accuracy. Both home range analysis methods and RSF evaluation techniques could assist in conservation by aiding in the delineation of critical grizzly bear habitat areas in both space and time.

There are a myriad of studies of animal habitat use that employ the notion of “home range”. Aggregated information on animal locations provide insight into a geographically discrete units that represents the use of space by an animal. Among various methods to delineate home range is the commonly used Kernel Density Estimation (KDE). The KDE method delineates home ranges based on an animal’s Utilization Distribution (UD). Specifically, a UD estimates a three-dimensional surface representing the probability or intensity of habitat use by an animal based on known locations. The choice of bandwidth (i.e., kernel radius) in KDE determines the level of smoothing and thus, ultimately circumscribes the size and shape of an animal’s home range. The bounds of interest in a home range can then be delineated using different volume contours of the UD (e.g., 95% or 50%). Habitat variables can then be assessed within the chosen UD contour(s) to ascertain selection for certain habitat characteristics. Home range analyses that utilize the KDE method, and indeed all methods of home range delineation, are subject to the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) whereby the changes in the scale at which data (e.g., habitat variables) are analysed can alter the outcome of statistical analyses and resulting ecological inferences. There are two components to MAUP, the scale and zoning effects. The scale effect refers to changes to the data and, consequently the outcome of analyses as a result of aggregating data to coarser spatial units of analysis. The aggregation of data can result in a loss of fine-scale detail as well as change the observed spatial patterns. The zone effect refers to how, when holding scale constant, the delineation of areal units in space can alter data values and ultimately the results of analyses. For example, habitat features captured within 1km2 gridded sampling units may change if instead 1km2 hexagon units are used. This thesis holds there are three “modifiable” factors in home range analyses that render it subject to the MAUP. The first two relate specifically to the use of the KDE method namely, the choice of bandwidth and UD contour. The third is the grain (e.g., resolution) by which habitat variables are aggregated, which applies to KDE but also more broadly to other quantitative methods of home range delineation In the following chapters we examine the changes in values of elevation and slope that result from changes to KDE bandwidth (Chapter 2) UD contour (Chapter 3) and DEM resolution (Chapter 4). In each chapter we also examine how the observed effects of altering each individual parameter of scale (e.g., bandwidth) changes when different scales of the other two parameters are considered (e.g., contour and resolution). We expected that the scale of each parameter examined would change the observed effect of other parameters. For example, that the homogenization of data at coarser resolutions would reduce the degree of difference in variable values between UD contours of each home range. To explore the potential effects of MAUP on home range analyses we used as model population 13 northern woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus). We created seasonal home ranges (winter, calving, summer, rut and fall) for each caribou using three different KDE bandwidths. Within each home range we delineated four contours based on differing levels of an animal’s UD. We then calculated values of elevation and slope (mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation) using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) aggregated to four different resolutions within the contours of each seasonal home range. We found that each parameter of scale significantly changed the values of elevation and slope within the home ranges of the model caribou population. The magnitude as well as direction of change in slope and elevation often varied depending the specific contour or season. There was a greater decrease in the variability of elevation within the fall and winter seasons at smaller KDE bandwidths. The topographic variables were significantly different between all contours of caribou home ranges and the difference between contours were in general, significantly higher in fall and winter (elevation) or calving and summer (slope). The mean and SD of slope decreased at coarser resolutions in all caribou home ranges, whereas there was no change in elevation. We also found interactive effects of all three parameters of scale, although these were not always as direct as initially anticipated. Each parameter examined (bandwidth, contour and resolution) may potentially alter the outcome of northern woodland caribou habitat analyses. We conclude that home range analyses that utilize the KDE method may be subject to MAUP by virtue the ability to modify the spatial dimensions of the units of analysis. As such, in habitat analyses using the KDE careful consideration should be given to the choice of bandwidth, UD contour and habitat variable resolution. / Graduate / 0366 / 0329 / spicym@uvic.ca

Northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) are a valued game species that have seen massive population declines in the last few decades. This decline has been attributed to many factors including predation, the topic of this study. I examined the habitat selection, nocturnal movement and potential rate of encounter with quail nesting locations by coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats (Lynx rufus), and raccoons (Procyon lotor) at the Rolling Plains Quail Research Ranch, a private 19 km2 ranch in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of west Texas. My study had 2 objectives: (1) to compare the habitat use of mesopredators in the Rolling Plains to the nesting habitat of bobwhites, and (2) to characterize the nocturnal paths of these mesopredators and measure their overlap with quail nesting locations. I placed GPS collars on 4 bobcats, 7 coyotes and 11 raccoons during the quail nesting seasons of 2009-2011. I used the chi-square test as well as a modified version of the Ivlev’s Electivity Index (1961) to calculate habitat selectivity. I also measured the proximity of the mesopredators and quail nesting locations to roads, water and quail feeders on the ranch. I used fractal analysis to calculate length and tortuosity of nocturnal paths and assessed potential risk to quail nests by determining the intersection rates of mesopredator paths with quail nesting locations. I found that a large difference existed in selectivity of habitat between bobwhite nesting locations and the bobcats and raccoons. Bobwhites selected for the upland grasslands and shrubs and against rocky ridges. Bobcats selected for riparian zones, while raccoons selected for both riparian zones and rocky ridges, neither of which were selected for by nesting quail. Bobcats and male raccoons additionally showed a propensity for road travel, which quail often nested close to. Coyotes selected strongly for grasslands, utilized their home ranges comprehensively and showed a preference for road usage, and thus had the greatest potential encounter rate with quail nest sites. However, coyotes also showed the most linear and direct movement pattern, potentially reducing their efficiency in finding quail nests. This study indicates that coyotes potentially present the largest threat to the nests of quail and female raccoons the least. Management decisions such as the levels of management needed for the 3 species of mesopredators are discussed.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 117-134). / x, 134 leaves, bound 29 cm

Understanding the relationship between organisms and their environment is particularly important for the conservation and management of endangered species. The kakapo (Strigops habroptilus, Gray 1845) is a critically endangered, lek breeding, flightless nocturnal parrot endemic to New Zealand. In April 1998, a total population of fifty-six kakapo was known to survive on offshore islands. Twenty-six kakapo, thirteen males and thirteen females, were temporarily transferred to Pearl Island (518 ha), southern Stewart Island, from April 1998 to April 1999. The translocation of kakapo to Pearl Island, and subsequent breeding season, provided an ideal experimental framework to study kakapo dispersal, movement patterns, home range development, habitat selection, and lek development during the non-breeding and breeding seasons. A total of 4425 radio locations were analysed for all twenty-six birds, with a mean error polygon of 0.03 ha and an estimated average radio telemetry error of 21.6 m. Various home range analysis techniques were used to estimate kakapo home range size and overlap including: minimum convex polygons (MCP), modified minimum convex polygons (MMCP), harmonic mean analysis, adaptive kernel methods and cluster analysis. Estimates of kakapo home range size differed significantly depending on the method used (ANOVA, general linear model: F₁₃, ₁₀₇₆ = 63.99, p < 0.0001) and the season (F₂, ₁₀₇₆ = 160.75, p < 0.0001). Breeding home range size was significantly larger than non-breeding range size (mean difference = 67.6 ha, t₂₅ = 15.27, p < 0.0001). Calculations from 100% MCP and 95% harmonic mean analysis resulted in larger estimates of home range size and overlap compared to other methods. Cluster and kernel analyses appeared to give the most accurate home range representation for kakapo. Core home range areas showed a greater degree of similarity between methods. Male and female mean annual home range size did not differ significantly, whereas males had significantly (p < 0.05) larger home ranges than females during the nonbreeding season. Minimum convex polygons and harmonic mean analysis suggested that there was no significant difference in the way in which males and females interacted with each other. Kernel and cluster analyses indicated that females would overlap a greater proportion of another bird�s home range than males would. Cluster analysis also indicated that a female would have more of her home range occupied by another bird than a male would. The fact that different methods produced different quantitative results is an important consideration when using home range analysis to make conservation management decisions. Researchers must determine which method is the most appropriate for a particular research objective, species, or study area. The application of geographical information systems, ERDAS image classification techniques and global positioning systems was an integral part of this study. A large-scale vegetation classification map of Pearl Island was produced in order to quantify habitat selection by kakapo. The unsupervised classification technique produced the least accurate vegetation map, with an accuracy measure of 17-23%, compared to 52% for the supervised classification. The highest accuracy was obtained using an integrated approach involving inductive classification and deductive mapping, resulting in a vegetation classification map which correctly classified 95% of vegetation samples. Thirty-seven ecotone classes were identified and a total ecotone length of approximately 124 km was detected. Resource selection ratios and resource selection functions were estimated using a combination of discrete, continuous and area-based habitat variables. Circular buffers around used and available point locations were generated to determine whether kakapo selectively use vegetation mosaics. The probability of selection increased with increasing species diversity in each 75-metre radius buffer. Kakapo selected habitat mosaics and vegetation types with higher species diversity and moderate to high abundance of mature rimu and yellow silver pine trees.