A research report submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts(International Relations), 2017 / In the past decade, the United States’ oil and gas industry experienced an extraordinary boom, due to shale gas. Shale gas accounted for only 1.6% of total US natural gas production in 2000, 4.1% by 2005, and an astonishing 23.1% by 2010. This remarkable growth has spurred interest in exploring for shale gas resources elsewhere. The purpose of the study is how the rise of fracking in the USA has impacted its foreign policy towards climate change. An exploratory qualitative method, known as process-tracing was used, with the aim of providing evidence-based literature in order to explore the change in the USA’s domestic energy and climate policies; as well to see the change in its stance on climate change on the international platform. Some of the key concluding findings relate to the Obama Administration’s championing of the Clean Energy Act. / XL2018

Hydraulic fracturing is essential for producing gas and oil at an economic rate from low permeability sands. Most fracturing treatments use water and polymers with a gelling agent as a fracturing fluid. The water is held in the small pore spaces by capillary pressure and is not recovered when drawdown pressures are low. The un-recovered water leaves a water saturated zone around the fracture face that stops the flow of gas into the fracture. This is a particularly acute problem in low permeability formations where capillary pressures are high. Depletion (lower reservoir pressures) causes a limitation on the drawdown pressure that can be applied. A hydraulic fracturing process can be energized by the addition of a compressible, sometimes soluble, gas phase into the treatment fluid. When the well is produced, the energized fluid expands and gas comes out of solution. Energizing the fluid creates high gas saturation in the invaded zone, thereby facilitating gas flowback. A new compositional hydraulic fracturing model has been created (EFRAC). This is the first model to include changes in composition, temperature, and phase behavior of the fluid inside the fracture. An equation of state is used to evaluate the phase behavior of the fluid. These compositional effects are coupled with the fluid rheology, proppant transport, and mechanics of fracture growth to create a general model for fracture creation when energized fluids are used. In addition to the fracture propagation model, we have also introduced another new model for hydraulically fractured well productivity. This is the first and only model that takes into account both finite fracture conductivity and damage in the invaded zone in a simple analytical way. EFRAC was successfully used to simulate several fracture treatments in a gas field in South Texas. Based on production estimates, energized fluids may be required when drawdown pressures are smaller than the capillary forces in the formation. For this field, the minimum CO2 gas quality (volume % of gas) recommended is 30% for moderate differences between fracture and reservoir pressures (2900 psi reservoir, 5300 psi fracture). The minimum quality is reduced to 20% when the difference between pressures is larger, resulting in additional gas expansion in the invaded zone. Inlet fluid temperature, flowrate, and base viscosity did not have a large impact on fracture production. Finally, every stage of the fracturing treatment should be energized with a gas component to ensure high gas saturation in the invaded zone. A second, more general, sensitivity study was conducted. Simulations show that CO2 outperforms N2 as a fluid component because it has higher solubility in water at fracturing temperatures and pressures. In fact, all gas components with higher solubility in water will increase the fluid’s ability to reduce damage in the invaded zone. Adding methanol to the fracturing solution can increase the solubility of CO2. N2 should only be used if the gas leaks-off either during the creation of the fracture or during closure, resulting in gas going into the invaded zone. Experimental data is needed to determine if the gas phase leaks-off during the creation of the fracture. Simulations show that the bubbles in a fluid traveling across the face of a porous medium are not likely to attach to the surface of the rock, the filter cake, or penetrate far into the porous medium. In summary, this research has created the first compositional fracturing simulator, a useful tool to aid in energized fracture design. We have made several important and original conclusions about the best practices when using energized fluids in tight gas sands. The models and tools presented here may be used in the future to predict behavior of any multi-phase or multi-component fracturing fluid system. / text

Orientadores: Philippe Remy Bernard Devloo, Sonia Maria Gomes / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T02:00:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Damas_RenatoGomes_M.pdf: 3286162 bytes, checksum: 85d0d261382f505e55d4f5544f378238 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Resumo: Neste trabalho avalia-se três modelos que retratam o processo de fraturamento hidráulico. O primeiro, desenvolvido por Fernandes [1998], trata-se de um modelo semi- nalítico cuja formulação fundamenta-se na taxa constante de injeção de fluido fraturante. Esse modelo apresenta como vantagem a simplicidade dos cálculos e a obtenção imediata dos resultados, por outro lado tem seu campo de atuação limitado a intervalos específicos de eficiência volumétrica para os quais foi elaborado. Os outros dois são modelos numéricos desenvolvidos por Devloo et al. [2001] e Devloo [2001]. Incorporam em seu equacionamento taxa variável de injeção e por efetuarem cálculos iterativos são independentes quanto a eficiência volumétrica do processo. Os resultados dos modelos numéricos foram comparados com os do modelo semi-analítico. Buscando-se, desta forma, validar os modelos numéricos para o uso em simulações de fraturamento hidráulico, principalmente para as condições de injeção de água presentes em poços com alta porosidade. Pretende-se com isso oferecer maior liberdade e flexibilidade durante o planejamento da operação de fraturamento. Oferecendo ao projetista a possibilidade de adoção de taxa injeção variável, períodos sem injeção intercalados com períodos com injeção, liberdade para utilização de diferentes fluidos fraturantes entre outros benefícios. / Abstract: The purpose of this research has been evaluated three models of hidraulic fracturing. The first one, developed byFernandes [1998], is a semi-analytical model whose formulation is based on a constant rate of injection of fracturing fluid. This model presents as advantage the simplicity of the calculations and the immediate attainment of the results, on the other hand its performance is limited at specific intervals of volumetric efficiency for which it was elaborated. The others two are numerical models developed by Devloo et al. [2001] and Devloo [2001]. They incorporate variable injection rate and due to the iterative calculations they are not limited in a range of volumetric efficiency of the process. The results of the numerical models had been compared with the ones of the semianalytical model. Searching, in such a way, to validate the numerical models for the use in simulation of hydraulic fracturing, mainly for the characteristic conditions of water injection present in wells with high porosity. It is intended with this to provide freedom and flexibility during the planning of the operation of fracturing. Offering to the designer the possibility to use variable injection rate, periods without injection intercalated with periods with injection, freedom to choose differents fracturing fluids among others benefits. / Mestrado / Estruturas / Mestre em Engenharia Civil

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / With the advent of shale gas exploration in the Karoo region, the purpose of this study was to investigate the possible socio-economic impacts of shale gas development on the town of Beaufort West in the Karoo. A qualitative study method was used to establish possible socio economic impacts by reviewing literature with regard to existing shale gas development as well as a case study from the United States of America (USA). A desktop study of Beaufort West was carried out to establish current socio economic trends in the town. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders to establish their concerns and opinion regarding the possibility of shale gas exploration and production in the area of Beaufort West in the Karoo. The results of the study concluded that the concerns of the key stakeholders were definitely relevant as their livelihood would be threatened if there was any possibility of contamination of their water sources. Other possible socio economic impacts included infrastructure concerns with regard to road maintenance, tourism declining and the threat of noise and air pollution. The study recommends that if the shale gas development process were to go ahead, the South African government would need to ensure that best practices are incorporated by all gas drilling companies. A team of qualified and trained regulators should monitor well pads and hydraulic fracturing methods as well as volumes of water used and the disposal of waste water. The regulations existing in the country should be revised to incorporate the stringent standards of other countries that have strict monitoring policies in place. In order to protect the people of the Karoo and the heritage of South Africa, the government must ensure that gas companies are held liable for any kind of environmental or socio economic impact.

Hydraulic fracturing is a process for the extraction of hydrocarbons from underground formations. It involves pumping a specialized fluid into the wellbore under high pressures to form and support fractures in the rock. Fracturing stimulates the well to increase the production of oil and the natural gas which are the pillars of the energy economy. Key to this process is the use of proppants, which are solid materials used to keep the fractures open. Understanding the transport of proppant particles through a fluid is important to improve the efficiency and reduce environmental impact of fracturing. An increase of the settling velocity for instance, will impede the hydraulic fracturing process by reducing well productivity, or necessitate use of chemical additives. This thesis presents a theoretical investigation of the settling velocity of proppant particles. The effect of different parameters on the settling velocity were studied by manipulating the main factors that can influence particle transport. These include size of the particle (300 μm- 2000 μm), sphericity, density (1200 kg/m3-3500 kg/m3) and concentration. These typical values were obtained from commercially available proppants currently used in industry. Various correlations were investigated, assuming the carrier (fracturing) fluid to be an ideal Newtonian and as a power law (non-Newtonian) fluid. This will help predict the settling velocity for proppant particles in order to increase well productivity, and improve hydraulic fracturing efficiency. The models show that changing the carrier fluid viscosity and particle properties such as diameter, density, sphericity, and concentration leads to a significant change in the proppant settling velocity. For instance, reduction in particle size, density, and sphericity tend to reduce the settling velocity, while increasing the concentration of the particles and the fluid viscosity reduce the settling velocity.

Abstract Josh Fox's film Gasland, released in 2010, started the national debate concerning the process of hydraulic fracturing and launched the term "fracking" into the public consciousness. Gasland, nominated for four Emmy Awards, was the winner of the 2010 Environmental Media Award for Best Documentary, the Sundance Film Festival Special Jury Prize, and the Yale Environmental Film Festival Grand Jury Prize. Using the momentum from the film's popular reception, Fox and the Gasland team successfully established a grassroots movement that was responsible for helping create the Frack Act and a moratorium of fracking in the Delaware River Shed. This thesis intends to determine what made Gasland so influential. Through a rhetorical criticism and media analysis, I will show how Fox's film ignited the debate on domestic natural gas production and has created a multi-public literacy that enables social change.

No description available.

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 1980. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING. / Includes bibliographical references. / by Donald Ralph Petersen. / M.S.

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Science. with Witwatersrand University, Johannesburg, South Africa, (School of Geography, Archaeological and Environmental Science within the Faculty of Science) 2nd June 2017. / Hydraulic fracturing in the Karoo is said to be a game changer of energy sector in South Africa, but it is said to pose potential groundwater contamination. Therefore the aim of the study was to investigate the extent to which current institutional set up in South Africa can deal and address potential environmental challenges that are associated to fracking. The study was particularly interested in investigating the institutional capabilities in the context of water management. The literature review of this study showed that water resource is a major environmental concern that revolves around hydraulic fracturing, including the water resources use and potential contamination. In addition, it should be considered that hydraulic fracturing is a new mining process in South Africa and Africa as a whole with controversial mining techniques and environmental impacts involved within this process. The review indicates that the biggest issue with proposed hydraulic fracking mining process in the Karoo is if the South African Government has taken into consideration the resources, infrastructures and skills to execute the process successfully. The literature asserts that even if proper enforcement of any regulations on this rapidly expanding industry will still be difficult as the regulation is insufficient due to certain explicit exemptions. In South Africa, the starting point for hydraulic fracturing and the associated regulations that governs fracking, is the recognition of an argument that South Africa does not possess any fracking specific laws, guidelines or even polices. Research participants were asked to give their views on the research topic by answering the semi structured interview questions. Data from the semi-structured interviews and literature review was analysed and discussed to address the research questions. The results of the investigation confirmed that there was no any legislation in place to govern this mining process in South Africa. Currently there are legislations which are under review and development to also address hydraulic fracking and the protection of water resources. The government should also involve other research institutes in the drafting and decision making of the legal institute governing hydraulic fracking to ensure that all gaps are identified before fracking can be permitted in the Karoo. / MT 2017

The process of natural gas extraction known as hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, is a controversial energy acquisition technique often viewed with disdain by the public, due to its potential for environmental harm. However, the mental health and psychological well-being of fracking communities, including potential benefits and detriments, are often overlooked. We reviewed the literature on the association between fracking and psychological functioning, finding that although persons living in fracking communities may experience some minimal, initial benefits such as land lease income or infrastructure development, they may also experience worry, anxiety, and depression about lifestyle, health, safety, and financial security, as well as exposure to neurotoxins and changes to the physical landscape. Indeed, entire communities can experience collective trauma as a result of the “boom/bust” cycle that often occurs when industries impinge on community life. Impacted communities are often already vulnerable, including poor, rural, or indigenous persons, who may continue to experience the deleterious effects of fracking for generations. An influx of workers to fracking communities often stokes fears about outsiders and crime; yet, it must be recognized that this population of mobile workers is also vulnerable, often ostracized, and without social support. Practitioners, researchers, and policy makers alike should continue to investigate the potential psychological ramifications of fracking, so that effective and targeted intervention strategies can be developed, disseminated, and implemented to improve mental health in fracking communities.