<div> <div> <div> <p>Billions of birds migrate annually between breeding and wintering habitats, following transient resources. Though a majority of time is spent in breeding and wintering habitats, habitats used during the migratory periods are especially important for migrating birds. Migration and stopovers, where birds rest and refuel before continuing a migratory journey, are critical points in a bird’s annual lifecycle, and are important ecologically, socially, and economically. Populations of migratory birds are declining on a global scale, however, and proper management is vital to their persistence in an urbanizing environment. Indiana in the Midwestern United States is an important area in which to study stopover ecology of migratory birds, as it is a fragmented forest- urban-agricultural matrix almost entirely managed through private ownership. In this dissertation, I studied three questions of stopover ecology within the landscape context of the Midwestern United States, primarily using weather surveillance radar and eBird citizen science data. </p> <p><br></p><p>First, I studied spatiotemporal changes over an 11-year period (autumn 2005-2016 and spring 2006-2017) in densities of nocturnally migrating birds at two radar stations in Indiana. I found that mean density of migratory birds stopping over in Indiana declined by approximately 6.8% annually, but variability in stopover site use increased over the same period. This is consistent with other work completed on continental scales, and highlights the need for further conservation of migratory birds. Second, I studied patterns of stopover site use in Indiana during spring 2016- 2017 and autumn 2015-2016, identifying landscape and local factors associated with those patterns. I used both traditional land cover characteristics and a novel approach using human socioeconomic measures to describe these patterns, and found that socioeconomics, particularly the size of a housing unit, were among the most important predictors of migratory bird density in Indiana. The results from this study suggest that migratory birds are utilizing urban habitats, which are known to contain several novel hazards for birds, but that migratory birds will benefit greatly from interdisciplinary work focusing on urban habitats. Third, I explored a novel method of using weather surveillance radar and eBird citizen science data in combination with each other, to see if both measures provided similar estimates of bird abundances during stopover. Though I found no correlation between the two, I argue that eBird and radar still provide important and complementary insights for the field of migration ecology. Finally, I provide guidelines for private landowners in Indiana on management for declining populations of migratory birds. </p> </div> </div> </div>

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Mandated by the Sikes Act of 1960, natural resource managers work to manage the habitats and wildlife that are found on military installations in the United States and Territories. At Camp Edwards Military Training Reservation (hereby abbreviated to Camp Edwards), (Bourne, MA), such wildlife includes the state-protected eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) and the declining prairie warbler (Setophaga discolor), which both occupy pine barrens. In 2020, natural resource managers at Camp Edwards noticed that eastern box turtles were being infected by myiasis, which occurs when flesh flies deposit larvae into the living tissue of a vertebrate host. In the literature, it has been documented that several ectothermic hosts respond to disease or parasite infection through a phenomenon referred to as ‘behavioral fever’ by moving to warmer locations to raise their internal temperature. Behavioral fever may clear the infection faster because higher body temperatures can induce parasite mortality or prevent secondary infections. However, it is unclear if myiasis induces behavioral fever in eastern box turtles or impacts other aspects of their behavior, such as habitat use. In Chapter 1, I compare behavior and habitat characteristics of myiasis infected and noninfected eastern box turtles at Camp Edwards. I radio-tracked 48 turtles weekly from May to August 2022. Upon capture, I recorded their infection status, shell surface temperature, and capture location habitat characteristics: understory vegetation, basal area, and canopy closure. I used generalized linear models and linear models to compare body condition indexes, shell temperatures, habitat use, and movement distances between infection statuses, sexes, and age classes. I found that myiasis infection had no significant effect on any variable other than shell surface temperature, which suggests infected turtles may be exhibiting behavioral fever. A second species of great concern at Camp Edwards are prairie warblers. Prairie warblers occupy early successional forests, which means that habitat management could have a direct impact on the distribution and abundance of this species. Despite declining populations regionally, prairie warbler populations at Camp Edwards have increased in the last few years. In Chapter 2, I analyze the effect of management projects (i.e., prescribed fire and mechanical projects) on prairie warbler colonization, extinction, and detection probabilities at Camp Edwards. I found that colonization was significantly predicted by the number of years since management and the proportion of the following vegetation cover types at a site: grassland, disturbed land, pitch pine – oak forest, and pitch pine – scrub oak community. I also found that extinction was significantly predicted by the proportion of pitch pine – scrub oak community at a site. Lastly, I found that detection probability was significantly predicted by the year of observation and the proportion of the following vegetation cover types: grassland, pitch pine – oak forest, and pitch pine – scrub oak community. These results can help managers predict how prairie warbler populations respond to management projects at Camp Edwards.

The long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) is a threatened species endemic to New Zealand. Historical anecdotes indicate that long-tailed bat populations have declined. However, it is unknown if all populations have declined and if declines are historical or ongoing. Thus, the development and implementation of a national network of long-tailed bat monitoring sites is a priority of the Department of Conservation's Bat Recovery Plan. Potentially, information gained from a national monitoring programme would assist conservation managers to target resources towards those areas where bat populations are declining and provide baseline information to assist managers to gauge the impact of management techniques on bat populations. Of critical importance is that unless it can be demonstrated that long-tailed bat populations have declined and that, that decline is real, management will not be initiated. The aim of this research was to investigate aspects of the ecology of long-tailed bats that would influence the development of a monitoring programme. The distribution, roost selection, habitat use, and activity patterns of a long-tailed bat population that persisted in the Waitakere Ranges, Auckland, were investigated. A study of the Waitakere Ranges long-tailed bat population was significant because (1) the Waitakere Ranges is the northern most location at which long-tailed bats have been researched; (2) the study was the first to be conducted on a long-tailed bat population that persisted in kauri Agathis australis dominated forest remnants; (3) the long-tailed bat population in the Waitakere Ranges is the only known extant population in close proximity to a major urban area; and (4) the factors that are attributed to long-tailed bat population declines (i.e., forest clearance, predation and urbanisation; O'Donnell, 2000) are likely to be ongoing and intensified in the Waitakere Ranges. Twenty roosts were located. Most roosts (85%) were in kauri, 2 were in mature rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and 1 was in a kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides). All roosts were in large, live, emergent trees. Mean height of roost trees was 38.4 ± 1.3 m and average DBH was 186 ± 12 cm. The entrances of six roost cavities were identified all were located in minor lateral branches in the crown of the tree and were primarily near the tip of branches. Roosts were a mean height of 24.6 ± 3.7 m above ground level. It was argued that roosts in the crowns of kauri were inaccessible to terrestrial mammalian predators. Twenty-eight roost watches were conducted. The average number of bats counted leaving roosts was 10.0 ± 1.5 (maximum = 24). Roosts were occupied by radio-tagged bats for an average of 2.0 ± 0.4 days, and 11 (55 %) were occupied for only one day. Roost size was the lowest reported for long-tailed bats. Roost switching also appeared higher than in other populations that have been studied. It was argued that morepork predation may have a significant impact on the population viability of the population. As in other studies long-tailed bats were found to forage over modified habitats including over farmland, dwellings, orchards and along streams and roads with little vehicular traffic. Long-tailed bats foraged throughout the Waitakere Ranges and their foothills. Bat activity was highly variable. Of the environmental variables analysed, temperature was found to have the greatest influence on bat activity. There were seasonal and habitat influences on bat activity. The relationship between sample sizes, variation in bat detection rates and desired statistical power using automatic bat detectors to monitor populations of bats was explored. A power analysis on activity data collected with automatic bat detectors indicated that declines in bat populations would need to be reflected in declines of greater than fifty percent in bat activity before monitoring programmes would have sufficient power to detect declines in activity. It was recommended that monitoring programmes should concentrate on intensive presence – absence surveys rather than long-term studies at a few sites.

<p>Effects of prairie restoration on arthropod diversity was investigated at Gabis Arboretum, Valparaiso, Indiana. A total of 35,408 arthropods belonging to 13 taxa in the restored prairie (RP1 and RP2), old field (OF), and monoculture stand of Phalaris arundinacea (reed canary grass – RCG) sites, were captured, counted, and compared. The enhanced plant species diversity in the restored prairies did not appear to promote the diversity of arthropod taxa. However, the restoration led to a more balanced composition of arthropod functional groups and thus elevated the diversity of functional groups. The arthropod assemblages in the three sites diverged clearly according to my canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination. Pollinator abundance was greatest at RP and least at RCG site, positively correlating with greater forb diversity, and suggesting greater potential for nectar feeding and pollination potential at RP sites. Herbivore abundance was greatest at the RP sites, positively correlating with increasing plant species diversity. Predator abundance was significantly greater at the RCG site compared to the OF and RP sites; it was positively correlated with greater C3 grass cover, a characteristic of the structurally homogenous RCG site, and negatively correlated with increasing plant diversity and forb cover, a characteristic of the diverse and more structurally complex RP sites. Given the apparent non-random distribution of arthropods among the field types, my results suggest plant species composition has a significant effect on arthropod assembly. The monoculture grass stand was found to have a predator dominated arthropod community supported by a small, diverse herbivore community. It is concluded that the prairie restoration has resulted in alteration of arthropod communities supporting greater pollinator and herbivore abundance and a more balanced ratio of herbivores to predators due, in part, to increased plant structural diversity.</p>

Dolphins are increasingly coming into contact with humans, particularly where tourism is involved. It has been assumed that such contact causes chronic stress on dolphin populations. This study examined relatively naive populations of Hector's dolphins and their interaction with various watercrafts. Dolphins in New Zealand have been observed using theodolites and boat-based observations over the last two decades, particularly on the east side of the South Island at Akaroa, which is situated on the coast line of Banks Peninsula. This research was undertaken using shore-based theodolite tracking to observe boat activity around the coast of Lyttelton and Timaru and their associated Harbours. Observations were made mostly over two periods each of six months duration and included the months October through to March during the years 2000-2001 and 2001-2002. Observations made during a third period in 2005 were also incorporated for some of the analyses. Field investigations using a theodolite included more than 376 hours/site/season and recorded dolphin behaviour both with and without the presence of tour boats. Of primary interest were the tours, which ran regular trips to observe Cephalorhynchus hectori in their natural habitat. Hector's dolphins at both Lyttelton and Timaru were consistently observed with particular boat types and not with other types of water craft. Dolphins at Timaru exhibited a greater range of behaviours than those at Lyttelton. Stress-related behaviours such as an increase in swimming speed to open ocean and grouping behaviour were only observed in the presence of boats. Other potential stress behaviours, such as head slaps and repeated tail slaps, were only performed in the absence of boats. Observations implied that some generic dolphin behaviours, which often indicate stressed individuals may not apply to Hector's dolphins, and therefore question the assumption that all dolphin species behave in similar ways. We suggest that low-level tourist boat activity is not placing undue stress on the population. In addition to theodolite observations, tour boat based observations of Hector's dolphin were undertaken and behaviour at each site recorded for a focal animal. Tour boat-based observations concentrated on determining any preference to bow, stern, portside and starboard sides of the vessel. Dolphins consistently showed a preference in direction of approach and departure from tour vessels with a strong tendancy to the bow of the boat, and least with the stern. These results were similar irrespective of site or vessel. Behaviour data were also collected from tour boat vessels over 48 trips/season/site and the data divided into transitional behaviour groups, which included stress behaviours, association / interaction behaviour and neutral behaviour. Behavioural count and time data were collected to reflect the number of times and duration of behaviour occurrence, particularly in relation to transitional behaviours. Determining the presence of stress in Hector's dolphins varied between the data sets and indicated that time is a necessary factor when attempting to determine whether an individual or a general population is genuinely stressed. Quadrant preference and swimming direction in relation to the Black Cat were observed over six years, and both count and time data were collected with regard to behaviour. The results were consistent with preference in quadrant being expressed towards the bow of the boat and least with the stern. The count data suggested no significant impact on Hector's dolphin behaviour in the presence of the Black Cat over time, where time data indicated there was a transition over the years from neutral behaviour in the second year of tour boat activity, to positive behaviour in the third year of boat-activity and finally avoidance behaviour in the seventh year of tour boat activity at Lyttelton Harbour in response to the presence of the Black Cat.

Während der letzten Jahrzehnte hat sich die Landwirtschaft grundlegend verändert und wird heute zunehmend von hocheffektiven, wirtschaftlich optimierten Produktionssystemen mit ausgedehnten Anbauflächen und dem damit verbundenen gesteigertem Einsatz von Kunstdüngern und Pestiziden geprägt. Diese Entwicklung bedingt jedoch auch den Verlust und die Fragmentierung von naturnahen Habitaten mit negativen Auswirkungen auf die Artenvielfalt in intensiv genutzten landwirtschaftlichen Gebieten. Der Rückgang der Artenvielfalt führt zur Schwächung von Ökosystemfunktionen wie der biologischen Schädlingskontrolle oder der Bestäubung von Ackerkulturen. Agrarumweltprogramme, ökologische Anbaumethoden und Habitatmanagement können helfen, diese negativen Auswirkungen abzumildern. Hierbei wird zunehmend deutlich, dass neben der lokalen Ebene auch der Einfluß der strukturellen Diversität auf der Landschaftsebene berücksichtigt werden muß: Eine Steigerung der Habitatdiversität auf der Landschaftsebene kann die Biodiversität auf der lokalen Ebene erhöhen, und so die negativen Folgen einer intensivierten Landnutzung kompensieren. In dieser Arbeit wurden die Effekte von lokalem Habitatmanagement (künstlich angelegte Blühstreifen, Waldränder und Hecken) und die Effekte verschiedener Anbaumethoden (extensive im Gegensatz zu intensiver Nutzung) auf Schwebfliegen-Gilden untersucht. Des Weiteren wurde der Einfluß bestimmter Landschaftsparameter, wie das Verhältnis von landwirtschaftlich genutzter Fläche zu naturnahem Habitat (als Maß der strukturellen Komplexität der Landschaften), oder der prozentuale Anteil von Rapskulturen im Umfeld der Versuchsflächen untersucht. Schwebfliegen stellen eine der größten Gruppen der Insektenordnung Diptera dar und kommen in vielen verschiedenen Habitaten in landwirtschaftlich genutzten Gebieten vor. Während adulte Schwebfliegen hauptsächlich Pollen- und Nektarkonsumenten sind, zeigen ihre Larven eine große Vielfalt von Ernährungsstrategien, die von zoophagen über bakteriophage und phytophage bis hin zu fungivoren Spezies reichen. Aphidophage Spezies wie Episyrphus balteatus oder Sphaerophoria scripta stellen die im Untersuchungsgebiet die am häufigsten vertretenen Schwebfliegenarten dar und können eine wichtige Rolle bei der biologischen Schädlingskontrolle verschiedener Blattlausarten einnehmen (z.B. Sitobion avenae, Rhopalosiphum padi, Metopolophium dirhodum). In dieser Arbeit haben wir den Einfluß künstlich angelegter Blühstreifen und natürlich entwickelter Grasstreifen auf Schwebfliegenpopulationen in Winterweizenfeldern untersucht, die entlang eines Gradienten der Landschaftskomplexität (zwischen 30% und 100% Ackerland auf mutiplen räumlichen Skalen von 0.5 bis 4 km Radien der Landschaftssektoren) lagen. Die Analyse des Einflusses extensiver im Vergleich zu intensiver Landwirtschaft wurde in zwei europäischen Ländern durchgeführt (Südschweden und Norddeutschland), indem jeweils vier Felder mit hoher landwirtschaftlicher Intensivierung (lokalisiert in strukturarmen Landschaften) mit vier Feldern mit niedriger landwirtschaftlicher Intensivierung (lokalisiert in strukturreichen Landschaften) verglichen wurden. Weiterhin wurde der Einfluß von Waldrändern, mit Waldrädern verbundenen Hecken und isolierten Hecken, die an landwirtschaftliche Flächen (Winterweizen- und Rapsfelder) angrenzten, im Zusammenhang mit veränderlichen Anteilen von Rapsfeldern in der umliegenden Landschaft im Hinblick auf die Häufigkeit von Schwebfliegen untersucht. Die Ergebnisse haben gezeigt, dass Blühstreifen die Häufigkeit von Schwebfliegen steigern können: Die Schwebfliegen-Artenvielfalt in Weizenfeldern, die sich in der Nähe von Blühstreifen befanden, war ebenfalls erhöht. Weiterhin nahmen der Artenreichtum und die Häufigkeit von Schwebfliegen in den Blühstreifen zu, wenn der Anteil von Ackerland im umgebenden Landschaftsausschnitt anstieg, was zu einer Konzentration von Schwebfliegengemeinschaften auf den vereinzelten, aber als Nahrungsressource lohnenden, Blühstreifen führte. Die Gesamthäufigkeit von Schwebfliegen, ebenso wie die Häufigkeit von aphidophagen Schwebfliegen, war auf den deutschen Versuchsflächen höher als auf den schwedischen Versuchsflächen. Die Häufigkeit von aphidophagen Schwebfliegen war in Feldern mit hoher Intensivierung erhöht, während nicht-aphidophage Schwebfliegen in Feldern mit niedriger Intensivierung häufiger waren. Außerdem tauchten Schwebfliegen in der deutschen Versuchsregion früher in der Saison auf, was möglicherweise eine engere Räuber-Beute-Synchronisation ermöglicht. Die Abundanz der Schwebfliegen war in Rapsfeldern im Vergleich zu Weizenfeldern erhöht. Die Häufigkeit von aphidophagen Schwebfliegen in Hecken und Waldrändern unterschied sich entsprechend benachbarter Feldfrüchte (Weizen und Raps) und dem Anteil von Rapsfeldern in der umgebenden Landschaft. Hierbei zeigte sich eine verringerte Abundanz aphidophager Schwebfliegen in der Nachbarschaft von Rapsfeldern (Verdünnungseffekt) und eine erhöhte Abundanz in der Nachbarschaft von Winterweizenfeldern (Konzentrationseffekt) bei gleichzeitig hohen Anteilen von Rapsfeldern in der umgebenden Landschaft. Die Abundanz von aphidophagen Schwebfliegen war am höchsten in Hecken, welche mit einem Waldrand verbunden waren. Gleichzeitig zeigte sich auch eine erhöhte Abundanz in den an solche Standorte angrenzenden Agrarflächen, was auf ein gesteigertes Übertreten (spillover) zwischen den Hecken-Habitaten und den angrenzenden landwirtschaftlichen Flächen hindeutet, und auf diesem Wege möglicherweise auch die biologische Schädlingskontrolle und die Bestäuberleistung verbessern kann. Im Allgemeinen haben die Resultate gezeigt, dass lokales Habitatmanagement die Diversität und die Häufigkeit von Schwebfliegen erhöhen kann und dabei möglicherweise auch die biologische Kontrolle von Getreideblattläusen gesteigert werden kann. Auf der Landschaftsebene unterstreichen die Resultate die Annahme, dass Umweltmanagement in strukturarmen Landschaften aufgrund der Konzentration hochmobiler Schwebfliegen in ressourcenreichen Habitaten effektiver ist als in Landschaften mit generell erhöhter Habitattypendiversität. Die relative Häufigkeit von aphidophagen Schwebfliegen variierte stark zwischen der deutschen und der schwedischen Versuchsregion, was auf eine veränderliche Rolle bestimmter Arten in unterschiedlichen Breiten hinweist. Schwebfliegen-Gilden (aphidophage im Gegensatz zu nicht-aphidophagen) wurden unterschiedlich von der landwirtschaftlichen Intensivierung beeinflußt. Die Häufigkeit von aphidophagen Schwebfliegen in naturnahen Hecken wird durch den Prozentsatz der Rapsfelder in der umgebenden Landschaft sowie die Art der benachbarten Feldfrüchte beeinflußt. Die positive Wirkung seminatürlicher Habitate wie künstlicher Blühstreifen und Hecken auf angrenzende Anbauflächen (mit veränderlicher Stärke entsprechend verschiedener Landschaftsparameter wie Ackeranteil und Rapsanteil) zeigt den dringenden Bedarf an gruppenspezifischen Habitatmanagementmethoden, um die Biodiversität und damit verbundene Ökosystemleistungen wie die biologische Schädlingskontrolle und Bestäubung in Agrarlandschaften zu verbessern.

<p>Greater prairie-chickens (<i>Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus</i>; GPC) have declined throughout large areas in the eastern portion of their range. I used species distribution modeling to predict most appropriate areas of translocation of GPC in and around Kankakee Sands, a tallgrass prairie in northwest Indiana, USA. I used MaxEnt for modelling the predictions based on relevant environmental predictors along with occurrence points of 54 known lek sites. I created four models inspired by Hovick et al. (2015): Universal, Environmental, Anthropogenic-Landcover, and Anthropogenic-MODIS. The Universal, Environmental, and Anthropogenic-MODIS models possessed passable AUC scores with low omission error rates. However, only the Universal model performed better than the null model according to binomial testing. I created maps of all models with passing AUC scores along with an overlay map displaying the highest predictions across all passing models. MaxEnt predicted high relative likelihoods of occurrence for the entirety of Kankakee Sands and many areas in the nearby landscape, including the surrounding agricultural matrix. With implementation of some management suggestions and potential cooperation with local farmers, GPC translocation to the area appears plausible.</p> <p>Franklin’s ground squirrels (<i>Poliocitellus franklinii</i>; FGS) have declined throughout a large portion of the eastern periphery of their range. Because of this, The Nature Conservancy is interested in establishing a new population of these animals via translocation. The area of interest is tallgrass prairie in northwest Indiana, USA: Kankakee Sands and the surrounding landscape. Species distribution modelling can help identify areas that are suitable for translocation. I used MaxEnt, relevant environmental variables, and 44 known occurrence points to model the potential for translocation of FGS to Kankakee Sands and the surrounding area. I created four models inspired by Hovick et al. (2015): Universal, Environmental, Anthropogenic-Landcover, and Anthropogenic-MODIS. I created maps of models with passing AUC scores. The final map was an overlay map displaying the highest relative likelihood of occurrence predictions for the area in all passing models. Only the Universal and Anthropogenic-MODIS models had passable AUC scores. Both had acceptable omission error rates. However, none of the models performed better than the null model (p < 0.05). MaxEnt predicted that a few areas in and outside of Kankakee Sands possess high relative likelihoods of occurrence of FGS in both the Universal and Anthropogenic-MODIS models. However, MaxEnt predicted high relative likelihoods in the surrounding agricultural matrix in the Universal Model. FGS prefer to cross through agricultural areas via unmowed roadside instead of open fields (Duggan et al. 2011). Because of this, high predictions in agricultural matrices in the Universal model are irrelevant. High relative likelihood predictions for linear sections that are obviously roads are disregardable in the context of my modeling efforts. Because of my low sample size, none of the models are really reliable in predicting relative likelihoods of occurrence for this area. Despite high relative likelihood predictions, the appropriateness of a translocation effort to the area is inconclusive.</p>

<p>Due to overpopulation and resource-poor habitat structure, deer threaten the<a> future of oak and other browse-sensitive species in hardwood forests. </a>Appropriate tools must be used to ensure desirable, diverse, and ecologically stable regeneration of future forests and the sustainability of native plant communities. We performed two experiments and a review to examine the effectiveness of available methods for managing browse of hardwood seedlings and to discover how these interact with each other and other silvicultural methods. First, we examined how fencing interacts with controlled-release fertilization, seed source (genetically select and non-select), and site type (afforested and reforested sites) to enhance the regeneration of planted northern red oak (<i>Quercus rubra </i>L.), white oak (<i>Quercus alba</i>), black cherry (<i>Prunus serotina</i>), and black walnut (<i>Juglans nigra</i>) at five sites in Indiana. Fencing proved to be the greatest determinant of seedling growth, survival, and quality. Fertilizer enhanced the early growth of white oak and black cherry, though for black cherry this occurred only inside fences. Select seed sources grew better and showed greater quality; however, the survival of select seedlings was limited by deer browse in absence of fences. Trees at afforested sites had lower survival if left non-fenced. Secondly, we also investigated how fencing and invasive shrub removal affected natural regeneration, species richness, and ground-layer plant cover under closed-canopy forests. Honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera maackii</i>) removal had a variable effect depending on species and site. Positive effects were most common for shade-intolerant species, while negative effects occurred for a few shade-tolerant species at some sites. Deer fencing had a positive effect on cherry and hackberry seedling density, and a negative effect on elm seedling density. Honeysuckle and deer fencing interacted antagonistically in some instances. Fencing without honeysuckle removal resulted in lower elm abundance and herbaceous-layer cover. In the densest invasions, leaving honeysuckle intact resulted in a complete lack of recruitment into the sapling layer. Our experiment suggests that invasive shrub removal and fencing be done together. Finally, we synthesized the existing literature on browse management options for hardwood regeneration to evaluate their relative effectiveness. Fences, tree shelters, repellents, facilitation by neighboring plants, deer population control, timber harvest, and slash all had positive effects on height growth of regenerating seedlings under deer browse pressure. Fences were more effective at reducing browse than repellents, while fertilizers increased browse and had no effects on growth. </p>